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Ag.   Dept . 


iitia  Lib. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/agriculturallaboOOwaterich 


AGRICULTURAL  LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

AND  HOME  PROJECTS  ADAPTED 

TO  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


9         >     J    9  > 

%\',t  •,? 


BY 


HENRY  J.  WATERS 


MANAGING   EDITOR    KjINSAS  CITY  IfEEk'ty  STAR,   LATELY    PRESIDENT  OF  THE   KANSAS   STATE   AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE  AND    FORMERLY    DEAN    OF  COLLEGE   OF   AGRICULTURE    OF  THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    MISSOURI 

AND 


JOSEPH  D.  ELLIFF 


PROFESSOR   OF   HIGH-SCHOOL   ADMINISTRATION,    UNIVERSITY   OF    MISSOURI,    AND 
DIRECTOR  OF   VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION   FOR   MISSOURI 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON    ■    NEW  YORK    •    CHICAGO    •    LONDON 
ATLANTA    •    DALLAS    ■    COLUMBUS    •    SAN  FRANCISCO 


AGfi/C,  DEPT. 

Uoki  La>. 
INTRODUCTION 

How  we  learn.  Textbook  teaching  of  agriculture,  while  very  useful,  is  inadequate  because  it  fails  to 
develop  the  student's  power  to  see  things  understandingly.  It  is  through  observing  and  doing  that  most 
of  the  knowledge  of  farming  is  acquired.  The  farm  is  a  great  laboratory.  The  operations  in  manuring 
the'taijd-,  preparin^^tii  soil,  selecting,  testing,  and  planting  the  seed,  protecting  the  plants  against  injury 
by  weeds,  insects',  an'd  disease,  gathering  and  saving  the  harvest,  feeding  the  products  to  live  stock  so  as 
t6'.bririg_',thf_JaiCgest  r^qrii  in  eggs,  meat,  milk,  wool,  and  work  are  its  exercises.  The  farmer  learns 
principally  by  experience,  the  best  though  the  costliest  of  teachers.  The  authors  believe  that  it  is  pos- 
sible, by  expert  teaching  and  close  supervision  of  the  student's  work  in  the  laboratory  and  field,  to  save 
a  large  part  of  this  expense.  The  exercises  are  so  planned  as  to  teach  the  student  how  to  make  an  ex- 
periment or  an  observation  accurately  and  how  to  record  and  interpret  the  results  correctly.  This 
gives  to  the  study  of  agriculture  the  disciplinary  value  of  an  exact  science,  besides  teaching  the  funda- 
mental lessons  of  how  to  farm  successfully. 

Selection  of  exercises.  In  choosing  the  exercises  and  projects  to  be  included  in  the  Manual,  the 
authors  have  sought  above  everything  else  to  select  those  which  relate  definitely  to  farming  and  which 
teach  in  their  results  the  essentials  of  farm  practice.  They  have  endeavored  to  make  the  ex- 
ercises and  projects  cover  as  completely  as  is  possible  the  important,  interesting,  and  practical  farm 
problems  of  the  country.  The  instructions  to  the  student  are  definite.  Each  exercise  and  home  project 
has  been  tried  out,  and  when  the  directions  are  carefully  followed,  results  that  are  decisive  will  follow. 

Use  of  exercises  and  projects.  The  number  of  exercises  to  be  completed  in  a  year  will  depend  upon 
the  needs  of  the  local  community  and  the  time  given  to  the  course.  The  vocational  school  giving  one 
half  of  each  day  to  the  course  in  agriculture  should  be  able  to  complete  all  the  laboratory  exercises  and 
in  addition  provide  the  required  six  months'  supervised  project  work.  In  schools  giving  less  time  the 
teacher  should  select  those  exercises  of  greatest  importance  to  the  local  community. 

Method.  It  is  a  great  waste  of  time  and  effort  to  require  each  student  to  do  aU  of  the  work  of  each 
exercise.  In  many  cases  the  work  of  manipulation  of  apparatus  and  material  can  best  be  done  by  the 
teacher  or  by  a  group  of  students.  In  the  table  of  contents  this  is  indicated  by  a  letter  in  parenthesis: 
(t)  meaning  that  the  work  of  manipulation  may  be  done  by  the  teacher,  (g)  by  a  group  of  students, 
(i)  by  the  individual  student. 

Cooperation  with  the  best  farmers.  The  closest  cooperation  between  the  teacher  of  agriculture 
and  the  best  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  is  necessary  to  insure  the  teaching  of  sound  agriculture 
and  also  as  a  means  of  facihtating  the  adoption  of  the  teachings  of  the  classroom  and  laboratory  into 
the  farm  practices  of  the  community.  Sound  teaching  and  close  cooperation  will  be  much  helped  if  the 
teacher  will  choose  an  advisory  committee  consisting  of  the  most  progressive  farmers  of  the  neighbor- 
hood and  will  use  this  committee  in  working  out  a  plan  of  correlating  the  school  work  with  the  local 
farm  work.  These  and  other  leading  farmers  should  be  invited  to  talk  to  the  class  on  the  methods  of 
farming  which  they  have  found  most  feasible  and  practicable. 

Every  member  of  the  class  in  agriculture  should  be  set  to  work  on  some  problem  on  the  home  farm. 
Use  should  be  made  of  the  best  dairy  and  beef  cattle,  the  best  horses,  hogs,  sheep,  and  poultry,  in  the 
community  in  the  stock-judging  work. 

The  school  ground  and  its  use.  Many  of  the  students  of  agriculture  in  high  schools  are  without 
farm  experience  and  are  taking  the  work  as  a  part  of  their  preparation  for  teaching  in  the  rural  schools. 
Many  of  the  students  are  girls.  Even  though  the  girls  were  reared  on  the  farm  they  have  not,  as  a  rule, 
given  attention  to  the  details  of  farm  operations.     To  both  of  these  classes  some  actual  field  work  will 

520.1  COPYRIGHT,    I919,    BY  GINN  AND  COMPANY 

[ii] 


be  of  great  value.  Every  school  which  has  a  plot  of  land  available,  or  which  can  secure  the  use  of  as 
much  as  a  few  vacant  city  lots  and  can  command  the  needed  funds,  should  arrange  to  grow  a  number 
of  the  crops  that  are  of  principal  local  importance.  It  is  true  that  the  operations  of  preparing  the  land, 
planting  the  seed,  and  cultivating  and  harvesting  the  crops  will  be  commonplace  to  those  students  in 
the  class  who  have  had  farm  experience,  but  the  work  may  be  so  planned  as  to  demonstrate  principles 
of  great  importance.  In  such  case  the  lessons  will  be  of  much  interest  and  value  to  farm  boys  as  well 
as  to  those  who  have  had  no  farm  experience. 

Project  work  in  agriculture.  Although  great  stress  is  laid  on  concrete  class  and  laboratory  in- 
struction in  field,  shop,  and  classroom,  this  is  not  sufficient.  In  order  that  a  boy  may  really  fix  his 
knowledge  of  poultry  husbandry,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  engage  in  the  poultry  business.  In  order 
that  he  may  bring  together  all  of  his  knowledge  of  agronomy,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  grow  a  crop  in 
accordance  with  what  he  has  learned  about  crop  production.  It  is  the  verification  and  application  of 
the  knowledge  gained  in  classroom  and  laboratory  that  is  the  real  measure  of  the  value  of  instruction 
in  any  subject.  In  agriculture  the  supervised  project  gives  full  opportunity  to  apply  the  knowledge 
gained  and  at  the  same  time  to  acquire  actual  farm  experience.  Project  work  in  secondary-school 
agriculture  is  that  part  of  the  work  of  the  course  performed  at  home  or  on  the  school  farm,  and  is  a 
fixed  requirement  for  each  pupil  in  all  schools  receiving  Federal  aid  under  the  Smith-Hughes  Act. 

Common  essentials  of  project  work.^   The  common  essentials  of  all  project  work  are : 

1.  The  project  must  be  selected  by  the  student  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  teacher  and 
parent.  The  parent  must  sign  a  written  statement  to  the  effect  that  he  will  (i)  provide  all  the  equip- 
ment necessary  for  the  project,  (2)  allow  the  student  sufl&cient  time  to  do  the  work,  (3)  allow  the  student 
the  net  proceeds  of  the  project. 

2.  The  project  must  cover  a  more  or  less  extended  period  of  time,  enough  to  do  the  work  well. 

3.  It  must  be  part  of  the  instruction  in  agriculture  as  taught  in  the  school  of  which  the  pupil  is 
a  member. 

4.  It  must  be  a  problem  worth  while  and  more  or  less  new  to  the  pupil. 

5.  Some  competent  person,  preferably  the  teacher  of  agriculture,  must  supervise  the  work. 

6.  Detailed  records  of  time,  method,  cost,  and  income  must  be  kept. 

7.  The  amoimt  of  school  credit  for  any  project  should  be  determined  on  the  basis  of  hours  necessary 
to  do  the  work  well.   If  school  time  is  used,  two  hours  on  the  farm  should  coimt  as  one  hour  in  the  school. 

8.  A  full  report  of  the  work  in  writing  must  be  submitted  to  the  teacher  and  kept  as  a  permanent 
record  in  the  school. 

Kinds  of  projects.  Projects  may  be  classified  as  crop  projects,  animal-husbandry  projects,  farm- 
management  projects,  etc.  They  may  also  be  classified  as  productive  projects,  demonstration  projects, 
improvement  projects,  etc.,  as  determined  by  the  aim  or  purpose.  A  further  classification  into  indi- 
vidual and  group  projects  is  possible.  Growing  a  five-acre  plot  of  corn  on  the  home  farm  is  an  individual 
project.    Growing  a  large  vegetable  garden  on  the  school  farm  is  a  group  project. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  by  the  authors  to  Dr.  Otis  W.  Caldwell  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  for  valuable  assistance  in  determining  the  plan  and  scope  of  the  work,  and  to  Charles  L. 
Quear,  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  for  invaluable  help  in  the  detailed  preparation  of  the 
exercises  and  projects  and  in  the  methods  of  illustrating  them.  Credit  is  given  Professor  J.  O.  Morgan, 
of  the  Texas  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  for  preparing  the  exercises  on  cotton ;  and  to  Dean 
E.  C.  Johnson,  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  for  the  exercises  on  plant  diseases ;  to  Pro- 
fessor George  A.  Dean,  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College,  for  the  exercises  on  insects  and  bees  ; 
and  to  Professor  Fred  H.  Merrill  for  the  exercises  on  orcharding.  HENRY  TACKSON  WATERS 

JOSEPH  DOLIVER  ELLIFF 

'  Adapted  from  Bulletin  364,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

[Hi] 


CONTENTS 

Note.    The  column  headed  "  Date  Completed  "  is  to  be  filled  in  by  the  student  as  the  exercise  is  completed;  the  column 
headed  "  Approved  "  is  to  be  filled  in  by  the  teacher. 

PART  I.    PLANT  LIFE  AND   GROWTH 

ExKKCisE  Date  Completed  Approved     Page 

1.  The  Beginning  or  Growth  (t) 2 

2.  How  Plants  Grow  (i)        4 

3.  How  Plants  Feed  (g) 6 

4.  The  Seed  as  a  Source  of  Plant  Food  (t) 8 

5.  The  Soil  as  a  Source  or  Plant  Food  (i) 10 

6.  The  Air  as  a  Source  of  Plant  Food  (i) 12 

7.  How  to  Plant  the  Seed  (i) 14 

8.  When  to  Plant  Seeds  (i) 16 

9.  How  Some  Plants  Are  Propagated  without  the  use  of  Seed  (i)     .    .    18 

10.  Propagation  by  Budding  and  Grafting  (i) 20 

PART  II.   THE   SOIL  AND   ITS  MANAGEMENT 

11.  The  Formation  and  Transportation  of  Soil  (i) 22 

12.  Collecting  Soil  Samples  (i)       24 

13.  The  Physical  Analysis  of  Soils  (i) 26 

14.  The  Texture  and  Structure  of  Soils  (i) 28 

15.  The  Tilth  of  Soils  (i) 3° 

16.  How  Water  gets  into  the  Soil  (i) 32 

17.  The  Film  or  Capillary  Water  of  the  Soil  (i) 34 

18.  The  Movement  of  Film  or  Capillary  Water  in  the  Son.  (i)   .    .    .    .    36 

19.  The  Soil  Moisture  which  the  Plants  can  use  (g) 38 

20.  The  Effects  of  a  Soil  Mulch  (g) 4° 

21.  The  Effects  of  Working  a  Soil  too  Wet  (i) 42 

22.  Soil  Drainage  (g) 44 

23.  Soil  Waste  through  Erosion  (t) 46 

24.  The  Power  of  Soil  to  Take  Up  Plant  Food  from  Solution  (i)    .    .    .    48 

25.  The  Acidity  of  Soils  (i) 5° 

26.  Plant  Food  removed  by  Crops  (i) 52 

27.  Determining  the  Deficiencies  of  a  Worn  Soil  (i) 54 

28.  Judging  Soils  (i)        36 

29.  The  Management  of  the  Soil  (i) S8 

PART  m.   FIELD  AND   ORCHARD    CROPS 

30.  The  Corn  Plant  (i)      <5o 

31.  The  Corn  Flower  (i) 62 

32.  A  Detailed  Study  of  the  Corn  Kernel  (i) '^4 

33.  The  Butt  and  Tip  Kernels  of  Seed  Corn  (i) ~ 

34.  A  Detailed  Study  of  the  Corn  Ear  (i) 

35.  Scoring  a  Ten-Ear  Sample  of  Corn  (i) 7° 

36.  Factors  Determining  the  Yield  of  Corn  (g) 7^ 

37.  A  Field  Study  of  the  Deficiencies  of  Corn  Plants  (g) 74 

38.  Selecting  Seed  Corn  from  the  Field  (i) 7° 

39.  Testing  Seed  Corn  (i) 78 

[iv] 


66 
68 


Exercise  Date  Completed      Approved  Page 

40.  Corn  Cultivation  (i) 80 

41.  A  Study  of  the  Wheat  Plant  (i) 82 

42.  Types  .of  Wheat  (i)  or  (t) 84 

43.  The  Properties  of  Wheat  which  affect  its  Value  and  Use   ....    86 

44.  Judging  Wheat  (t) 88 

45.  The  Commercial  Grading  of  Wheat  (g) go 

46.  The  Commercial  Grading  of  Oats  (g) 92 

47.  The  Commercial  Grading  and  Scoring  of  Barley  (g) 94 

48.  A  Study  of  the  Sorghum  Plant  (i) ; 96 

49.  Judging  the  Grain  Sorghums  (i) — 98 

50.  A  Study  of  Legumes  (i) 100 

51.  Inoculation  of  Soils  for  Legumes  (g)      102 

52.  A  Study  of  the  Potato  (i) 104 

53.  Impurity  of  Farm  Seeds  (i) 106 

54.  Field  Study  of  the  Cotton  Plant  (i) — ^ 108 

55.  The  Improvement  of  Cotton  (i) 110 

56.  Grading  Cotton  (g) U2 

57.  Crop  Rotation  (i) 114 

58.  The  Silo  and  Silage  (g) — 116 

59.  How  to  Plant  a  Tree  (t) 118 

60.  Pruning  the  Apple  Tree  (t) 120 

61.  Harvesting  and  Grading  Apples  (g) 122 

62.  Packing  Apples  (t) 124 

PART  IV.   INSECTS  AND   PLANT  DISEASES  AND   THEIR   CONTROL 

63.  The  Structure  of  an  Insect  (i) 126 

64.  The  Life  History  of  an  Insect  (i) 128 

65.  The  Structure,  Habits,  and  Management  of  Honey  Bees  (i)  .     .     .     .    130 

66.  A  Study  of  Fungi  (t) 1^2 

67.  A  Study  of  Bacteria  (t) 1^4 

68.  Controlling  Plant  Diseases  (t) i^^ 

PART  V.  BREEDS  AND  TYPES  OF  FARM  ANIMALS 

69.  Where  our  Breeds  of  Live  Stock  Originated  (i) 136 

70.  Judging  Heavy  Horses  (l) 1,8 

71.  Judging  Light  Horses  (t) 140 

72.  Blemishes,  Unsoundness,  Faults,  and  Vices  of  the  Horse  (t)  .    .    .    . 142 

73.  JuDGixVG  Mules  (t) —    144 

74.  Judging  Beef  Cattle  (t) ■ — .  146 

75.  Judging  the  Dairy  Cow  (t) 148 

76.  The  PRODUcnoN  Record  of  a  Dairy  Herd 150 

77.  Judging  Swine  (t) 1^2 

78.  Judging  Sheep  (t) 1-4 

79.  A  Study  of  the  Constitutional  Vigor  in  Fowls  (i) 156 

80.  Judging  Eggs  (i)        icg 

81.  Microscopic  Examination  of  Milk  (i) 160 

82.  Milk  Testing  (t)       162 

83.  Methods  of  Producing  Sanitary  Milk  (t) 164 

.       PART   VI.   FEEDING   FARM  ANIMALS 

84.  Plants  as  Food  for  Animals  (i) 166 

85.  How  the  Animal  Digests  its  Food  (i) 168 

[v] 


Exercise  Date  Completed  Approved  Page 

86.  Computing  the  Nutritive  Ratio  of  Stock  Feeds  (i) 170 

87.  Computing  a  Balanced  Ration  (i)  .- 172 

88.  Computing  a  Standard  Ration  (i) — : 174 

89.  Computing  a  Stant)ard  Ration  for  Pigs  (i) 176 

90.  Computing  a  Standard  Ration  for  Dairy  Cows  (i) 178 

91.  Computing  Standard  Rations  for  Laying  Hens  (i) 180 

PART  VII.   FARM  EQUIPMENT  AND   MACHINERY 

92.  The  Gas  Engine  and  Automobile  (t) 182 

93.  The  Adjustment  and  Use  of  Farm  Machinery  (t) 184 

94.  The  Care  of  Farm  Machinery  (i) 186 

95.  Making  a  Farm  Inventory  (i) 188 

96.  The  Community  Business  (i) 190 


I.   PRODUCTION  PROJECTS 

Project 

I.   Growing  Corn  for  Profit ■ 194 

2    Growing  a  Vegetable  Garden  for  Profit 196 

3.  Finding  the  High- Yielding  Ear  for  Seed • 198 

4.  Growing  Poultry  for  Profit 200 

5.  Keeping  Two  Dozen  Hens  for  Egg  Production 202 

II.   SOIL  PROJECTS 

6.  Preparation  of  a  Seed  Bed  for  Wheat —    204 

7.  Determining  What  the  Soil  Needs 206 

III.  DEMONSTRATION  PROJECTS 

8.  Demonstrating  the  Value  of  a  Balanced  Ration  for  Growing  Hogs  .  208 

9.  Finding  the  Failure  Cow  in  the  Herd 209 

IV.   IMPROVEMENT  PROJECTS 

10.  The  Use  of  Concrete  on  the  Farm 210 

11.  The  Construction  and  Use  of  Hotbeds  and  Cold  Frames 212 

APPENDIX 

Table  I.    Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fertilizing  Constituents  in  Common 

American  Foodstuffs 213 

Table  II.    Plant  Food  Contained  in  Common  Fertilizers 215 

Table  III.     Feeding  Standards 216 

Table  IV.    Suggested  List  of  Typical  Home  Projects 217 


[vi] 


>    )-  ■, 
•    •  ?  1 


MANUAL  OF    LABORATORY   EXERCISES 


■^  "   "  , "    c 


PART    I.     PLANT   LIFE 


EXERCISE   1 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  GROWTH 

Statement.    Every  live  seed  contains  a  plantlet  which,  under  proper  conditions,  will  grow.   The 
early  growth  of  a  plant  is  usually  more  rapid  than  that  of  any  subsequent  period.     A  few  days  in 
the  early  period  witnesses  a  remarkable  change  in  the  development  of  all  parts  of 
a  seedling. 

Object.  To  discover  the  way  in  which  growth  begins  and  the  conditions  which 
are  most  favorable  for  the  development  of  the  yoimg  plant. 

Materials.  Seeds  of  corn,  wheat,  peas,  and  Uma  beans  that  wiU  germinate ; 
dinner  plates ;  blotters ;  flowerpots  or  tin  cans ;  and  clay  subsoil. 

Directions,  (i)  Place  seeds  that  are  alive  and  those  that  are  dead  between 
blotters  in  a  dinner  plate ;  moisten  the  blotters  with  water  and  set  in  a  cold 
place.  In  like  manner  prepare  three  other  plates  of  seeds  but  omit  water  from 
one  of  them.  Place  one  to  which  water  has  been  added  and  one  to  which  no  water 
has  been  added  in  a  warm,  light  place.  Set  the  other  plate  of  seeds  in  a  warm, 
dark  place.  Keep  all  moist  as  needed  except  the  one  to  which  no  water  was 
previously  added.    Compare  results  each  day  for  a  week. 

Make  outhne  drawings  of  the  seeds  of  peas,  beans,  and  wheat  that  germinated, 
showing  changes  from  day  to  day.  Label  the  parts,  root,  stem,  and  leaf,  and 
number  them  in  order  of  their  appearance. 

(2)  Fill  two  flowerpots  or  cans  with  finely  screened  clay  subsoil  and  add  water 
to  one  of  the  pots.  Stir  the  soil  which  has  been  moistened  until  it  becomes  a 
thick,  smooth  batter.  Plant  seeds  in  each  of  the  two  pots  and  water  both  alike. 
Explain  the  difference  in  the  early  growth  of  the  seeds.  What  does  one  have 
which  the  other  lacks? 

(3)  Boil  some  water  in  a  small  glass  vessel  and  set  it  aside  to  cool.  As  soon 
as  it  comes  to  room  temperature  drop  in  a  few  kernels  of  corn  or  beans.  Cover 
the  surface  of  the  water  with  a  thin  film  of  kerosene  or  motor  oil  to  exclude  the 
air.  In  another  vessel  of  unboiled  water  place  a  similar  number  of  seeds  and 
shake  the  water  in  this  vessel  at  least  twice  a  day  for  ten  days.  What  are  the 
results?    Explain  them. 

Questions.  What  happens  when  seeds  lack  air?  What  happens  when  they 
lack  moisture ?  Heat?  Light?  What  are  the  conditions  necessary  for  germina- 
tion? Which  part  of  the  seedling  appeared  first?  Which  last?  Is  the  vitality 
of  seeds  affected  by  their  age?  What  is  the  effect  of  freezing  upon  the  vitality 
of  urunature  seeds?  upon  mature  seeds  that  are  not  dry?  upon  dry  mature  seeds? 


Fig.  I.    The  beginning 

of  growth  in  the  com 

plant 


References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  36-37.  Ginn  and  Company.  Stoddaet,  C.  W. 
The  Chemistry  of  Agriculture,  pp.  17-21.  Lea  &  Febiger.  Hunt  and  Bxirkett.  Soils  and  Crops,  pp.  185-186. 
Orange  Judd  Company. 


[2] 


EXERCISE   1  (Continued)  \  ,  .         .... 

MAKE  OUTLINE   DRAWINGS  ILLUSTRATING  THE  STAGES  OF  GERMINAttdN  OF  WHEAT  ;  ;, 


Planted  Kernels 

Stem  and  Root  Started 

Stem  above  Ground 

Fully  Germinated  Plant  with 
Leaves  and  Root  System 

(SoU  line) 

MAKE  OUTLINE  DRAWINGS   ILLUSTRATING  THE   GERMINATION  OF  LIMA  BEANS 


Soaked  Seed 

Rootlet  Breaking 
Seed  Coat 

Rootlet  Breaking 
Soil  Line 

Cotyledons  (Seed 
Leaves)  Pulled  upwards 

Plant  with  Leaves' 

• 

(SoU  line) 

'  On  the  drawing  of  the  plant  with  first  leaves,  label  primary  and  secondary  roots,  leaf  stalk,  leaf  blade,  and  veins  of  leaf. 

[3] 


EXERCISE   2 


HOW  PLANTS   GROW 


Statement.  Plants  are  made  of  cells  which  vary  in  age,  size,  shape,  and  content.  The  mature 
cells  may  divide  into  two  or  more  new  cells.     These  in  turn  absorb  food  from  the  sap  of  the  plant, 

develop,  mature,  and  may  divide  into  new  cells.    This  is  growth. 

Growth  can  take  place  only  in  the  young  tissues  of  the  plant.  If  the  cell 
walls  become  hardened,  as  in  the  heartwood  of  a  tree,  the  cells  no  longer  divide 
and  that  part  of  the  plant  ceases  to  grow.  Growth  in  length  of  roots  takes 
place  at  the  tip,  and  the  elongating  region  at  most  extends  over  only  a  small 
fraction  of  an  inch.  Growth  in  length  of  stems,  however,  is  much  less  con- 
fined. It  begins  at  the  tip  but  the  elongating  region  may  extend  eighteen 
inches  or  more  back  of  the  tip.  Increase  in  diameter  in  some  plants  is  accom- 
pHshed  by  a  layer  of  growing  cells  which  lies  between  the  bark  and  wood,  as  in 
the  case  of  trees.  In  other  plants  new  tissues  originate  at  the  tip  and  the 
increase  in  diameter  as  a  rule  takes  place  only  by  the  enlargement  of  the  cells 
of  these  tissues.  The  growth  of  these  cells  soon  ceases  and  the  diameter  of 
the  stem  is  limited,  as  shown  by  the  corn  stalk. 

Object,  To  observe  where  the  growth  in  roots  and  stems  of  various  kinds 
of  plants  occurs. 

Directions,  i.  Place  kernels  of  corn  between  the  folds  of  blotting  paper. 
Keep  the  blotting  paper  moist  and  covered  with  a  cloth  vmtil  the  grain  has 
germinated  and  the  roots  are  one-half  to  one  inch  in 
length.  Beginning  at  the  tip  of  each  root  of  the 
sprouted  kernels  mark  fine  ink  lines  across  them  one- 
eighth  inch  apart,  being  careful  not  to  injure  the  roots. 
Replace  the  kernels  in  the  germinator  and  allow  the 
plants  to  grow  for  a  day  or  two.   Explain  the  results. 

2.  In  like  maimer  mark  lines  beginning  at  the  stem  tips  on  other  plants 
after  they  are  sufficiently  developed.   The  bean  is  a  good  plant  to  use. 

3.  Obtain  a  young  bean  plant  after  it  has  put  forth  leaves  and  mark 
lines  one-eighth  inch  apart  along  the  edge  of  the  leaf  and  on  the  leaf  stem 
or  petiole.  In  a  few  days  observe  the  results.  Compare  a  leaf  with  a  plant 
stem  in  the  way  it  increases  in  length.  Perform  the  same  exercise  with  a 
corn  leaf. 

Questions.  What  part  or  parts  of  a  young  plant  are  first  to  appear  from 
the  seed  ?  Explain  in  what  ways  knowledge  of  the  manner  of  growth  of  the 
roots  is  important  and  why  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  the  stem  growth  inde- 
pendent of  a  good  root  growth.  Has  this  fact  any  bearing  upon  the  relation 
of  soil  texture  to  root  development?  Fig.  3.  Bean  plant 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  193.  '  Ginn  and  Company.  Hunt  and  Biirkett. 
Soils  and  Crops,  pp.  187-188.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Bergen  and  Caldwell.  Introduction  to  Botany, 
pp.  20,  67.    Ginn  and  Company. 


Fig.  2.   Com  plant 


H] 


EXERCISE   3 

HOW  PLANTS  FEED 

Statement.   That  part  of  a  plant's  food  which  is  obtained  from  the  soil  must  be  dissolved  in  water 
before  it  can  be  taken  up  by  the  plant.   The  process  by  which  soil  plant  food  in  solution  passes  into  a 

plant  is  called  osmosis.  The  greater  flow  of  liquid  under  osmosis  is  always 
from  the  weaker  or  less  dense  solution  to  the  stronger  or  more  concen- 
trated solution.  In  this  process  the  solution  diffuses  through  the  mem- 
brane and  passes  into  the  interior  of  the  root  hairs  of  the  plant.  It  may 
then  in  a  similar  way  pass  into  other  cells  of  the  plant.  Ordinarily  the 
plant  obtains  its  soil  food  in  a  very  weak  solution,  being  able  to  live 
where  there  is  as  little  as  one  part  of  such  material  dissolved  in  ten  thou- 
sand parts  of  water.  If  the  plant  solution  or  sap  is  weaker  than  that  of 
the  soil  solution,  as  in  the  case  of  dying  or  ripening  plants,  the  flow  may 
be  from  the  plant  into  the  soil. 

Object.   To  demonstrate  how  the  soil  food  enters  a  plant. 

Materials.  Glass  funnel  or  thistle  tube ;  thick  sirup ;  a  large-mouthed 
bottle  with  cork  to  fit ;  and  a  piece  of  parchment  paper  or  animal  mem- 
brane, as  a  hog  bladder.  This  may  be  obtained  at  the  butcher  shop  at 
any  time  and  softened  in  water  before  using. 
The  membrane  stripped  from  a  piece  of 
bologna,  or  the  membrane  of  an  egg  obtained 
by  dissolving  the  shell  in  strong  vinegar,  may 
be  used. 


Fig.  4.    Diagram  showing  move- 
ment of  water  from  soil  through 
the  plant 


Directions,  i.  Fill  a  bottle  three-fourths 
full  of  pure  water.  Close  the  small  end  of  a 
thistle  tube  or  funnel  and  fill  it  almost  full  of  sirup.  Tie  a  piece  of  mem- 
brane securely  over  the  mouth  of  the  thistle  tube  and  place  it  in  the  bottle, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration.  Remove  the  cork  from  the  small  end  of  the 
tube  and  immerse  the  tube  until  the  level  of  the  two  liquids  is  the  same. 
Note  what  has  happened  at  the  end  of  an  hour.  Record  the  results  every 
hour  for  six  hours.  Join  another  piece  of  glass  by  means  of  rubber 
tubing  to  the  thistle  tube  and  see  how  high  the  water  will  rise.  This 
process  of  diffusion  of  liquids  through  a  membrane  as  stated  above  is  called 
osmosis. 

2.  From  the  center  of  a  potato  cut  two  small  cubes  of  equal  size  and 
weigh  each.  Place  each  piece  in  a  dish  of  water,  and  to  one  dish  of  water 
add  a  teaspoonful  of  salt.  To  each  dish  add  a  few  drops  of  iodine  solution. 
Twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  later  pour  off  the  water,  dry  each  piece  of  potato 
on  a  blotting  paper,  and  weigh.  Record  and  explain  results  on  the  opposite 
page.     Apply  the  principles  observed  to  plant  feeding. 


Fig.  5.    Movement  of   liquid 
through  membrane  by  osmotic 
action 


Questions.  How  does  the  amount  of  liquid  in  the  tube  at  the  close  of  the  exercise  compare  with 
the  amount  placed  in  the  tube  ?  How  did  this  water  get  into  the  tube  ?  Has  any  of  the  sirup  passed 
from  the  tube  into  the  bottle  ?  Taste  the  water  to  determine.  Explain  how  the  solution  inside  the  roots 
of  a  plant  is  kept  more  concentrated  than  the  solution  outside  the  roots.  Explain  why  ripe  grapes, 
cherries,  apples,  or  peaches  frequently  burst  following  a  rain.   Why  is  the  green  fruit  not  so  affected  ? 

[6] 


EXERCISE  3  (Continued) 
RISE  OF   SOLUTION  BY  OSMOSIS 


TiMi: 

One  Hour 

Two  Hours 

Three  Hours 

Four  Hours 

Five  Hours 

Six  Hours 

Rise  of  solution  in  inches 

WEIGHT  OF  POTATO  INFLUENCED   BY  OSMOSIS 


Piece  Number 

First  Weight 

Final  Weight 

Gain  or  Loss 

I 

. 

2 

References.  Waters,  H.J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  26-27.  Ginn  and  Company.  Coxtlter,  J.  M. 
Elementary  Studies  in  Botany,  pp.  263-264.  D.  Appleton  and  Company.  Hunt  and  Burkett.  Soils  and 
Crops,  p.  179.   Orange  Judd  Company. 


[T 


EXERCISE  4 

THE  SEED  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Statement.   The  seed  contains,  in  addition  to  the  miniature  plant,  the  food  upon  which  the  plant 

lives  during  the  days  when  the  seed  is  germinating,  and  until  the  young  plant  has  unfolded  its  leaves 

in  the  sunlight  and  air  and  its  roots  have  become  firmly  estab- 

plantut    h   ^    '^  lished  in  the  soil.    If,  after  the  food  which  is  necessary  to  nourish 

,  the  plant  through  these  periods  is  consumed  there  remains  a  reserve 

to  help  the  young  plant  get  along  while  it  is  deHcate,  the  chances  of 

the  plant's  living  and  producing  a  satisfactory  harvest  are  greatly 

increased. 
Fig.  6.    Ratio  of  embryo  to  stored  food 

o.  cross  section  of  bean;  b,  cross  section  of  com  Object.  To  show  the  relationship  of  the  stored  food  in  the  seed 

to  the  seedling. 

Materials.   Eight  flowerpots  or  tin  cans ;  sand ;  corn  kernels;  lima  beans;  potatoes. 

Directions,  i.  In  a  pot  of  sand  plant  four  kernels  of  corn,  and  in  another  plant  four  kernels  of  corn 
prepared  by  paring  away  all  of  each  kernel  except  the  soft,  oily  germ  which  lies  on  the  concave  side  of 
the  kernel.  In  a  third  flowerpot  plant  four  hma  beans.  Water  the  three  pots  alike  and  place  them 
where  the  plants  can  grow  to  the  best  advantage.  As  soon  as  the  beans  come  up  remove  all  but  two 
of  the  plants.  When  the  seed  leaves  on  one  of  the  plants  begin  to  spread  apart,  and  the  Uttle  plant 
appears  between  them,  remove  the  seed  leaves  by  use  of  a  sharp  knife.  Leave  the  other  plant  unmo- 
lested.   Observe  them  after  a  few  days. 

2.  Plant  in  a  flowerpot  a  nimiber  of  small  seeds,  such  as  timothy  or  radish  seed,  for  comparison  with 
corn  and  lima  beans  as  to  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  plants  produced. 

3.  Select  three  potatoes  of  nearly  the  same  size.   Remove  all  the  eyes  but  one  from  one  of  the 
potatoes.    Cut  the  second  into  four  equal  pieces,  leaving  one  eye  in  each  piece.   Remove  an  eye  from ' 
the  third  potato  and  leave  attached  to  it  a  very  small  piece  of  potato.   Plant  these  cuttings  in  sand 
and  compare  the  rate  of  growth  and  the  size  and  vigor  of  the  plants  produced. 

Questions.  When  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  kernel,  did  the  corn  germ  produce  a  plant?  Did 
the  Uma-bean  plants  live  after  the  seed  leaves  had  been  removed  ?  What  are  the  sources  of  food 
used  by  the  yoiuig  plant  in  promoting  growth?  When  the  material  stored  in  the  part  planted  is 
exhausted,  what  happens  to  the  plant  growing  in  sand?  If  the  plants  had  been  growing  in  a  fertile 
soil,  what  would  have  happened  when  the  food  stored  in  the  seed  was  exhausted  ?  Which  will  produce 
the  larger  and  more  vigorous  plants,  large  or  small  seeds,  plump  or  shriveled  seeds  ?  Compare  the  size 
of  young  timothy  or  radish  plants  with  corn  or  Uma-bean  plants.  What  is  the  explanation  of  the 
differences  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  24-26.  Ginn  and  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin, 
BucKMAN.  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management,  pp.  480-488.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hopkins,  C.  G. 
Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  pp.  13-15.  Ginn  and  Company.  Bergen  and  Caldwell.  Introduc- 
tion to  Botany,  pp.  6-20.    Ginn  and  Company. 


[8] 


EXERCISE  4  (Continued) 
PLANT  FOOD   FROM  THE  SEED 


GROWTH  AT  THE  END  OF 

Four  days 

Eight  days 

Twelve  days 

Sixteen  days 

Twenty  days 

Com,  whole  kernels 

Com,  germ        

Bean,  seed  leaves  removed 

Bean,  untreated 

Whole  potato 

One-fourth  potato 

Small  section  of  potato 

Potato  eye 

9) 


EXERCISE  5 

THE  SOIL  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  PLANT  FOOD 

Statement.  Mature  seeds  contain  enough  food  to  nourish  the  plant  through  the  period  of 
germination  and  for  a  comparatively  brief  period  thereafter.  Soon,  however,  the  growing  plant  must 
begin  to  rely  upon  other  sources  for  its  food  supply.     One  of  these  sources  is  the  soil. 

Object.   To  show  that  the  soil  supplies  a  part  of  the  food  required  by  the  plants  for  growth. 

Materials.  Clean  sand ;  garden  loam ;  powdered  rock  or  pieces  of  rock  that  may  be  powdered  in 
the  classroom ;  flowerpots ;  rain  water  or  distilled  water ;  seeds  of  corn,  wheat,  or  beans. 

Directions.  Take  enough  powdered  rock,  or  powder  enough  rock  material  to  fill  a  flowerpot,  and 
in  it  plant  six  beans  or  corn  kernels.     If  these  materials  are  not  at  hand,  clean,  fine  sand  may  be  used, 


Fig.  7.    The  soil's  contribution  to  the  harvest 

The  scene  on  the  left  represents  a  waste  of  sand  which  is  incapable  of  supporting  much  plant  life.     That  on  the  right  shows  the  rank 

growth  of  plants  on  a  fertile  soil 

first  heating  it  in  a  shovel  or  iron  pan  until  all  of  the  material  that  will  burn  has  been  removed.  Fill 
another  pot  with  garden  loam  and  in  it  plant  a  like  number  of  the  same  kind  of  kernels.  Place  both 
pots  where  the  plants  will  have  a  chance  to  grow  and  treat  them  exactly  alike.  Water  both  with 
either  distilled  or  rain  water.  Compare  the  plants  as  to  the  rate  of  growth  at  the  end  of  a  week  and 
each  week  thereafter  until  results  are  readily  apparent. 

Questions.  In  which  kind  of  material  did  the  plants  thrive  best,  and  why  ?  What  part  of  the  sand 
remained  after  it  was  heated?  What  material  was  destroyed  by  the  heat?  What  part  of  the  food  of 
the  plant  is  supplied  by  the  soil  ?  In  what  condition  does  the  growing  plant  take  this  material  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  72-80.  Ginn  and  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin, 
BucKMAN.  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management,  pp.  3-6.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hopkins,  C.  G. 
Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  pp.  26-46.  Ginn  and  Company.  Stoddard,  C.  W.  Chemistry 
of  Agriculture,  pp.  26-27.  Lea  and  Febiger. 


10 


EXERCISE  5  {Continued) 
COMPARATIVE   SIZES  OF  PLANTS   OF   DIFFERENT  AGES 


First  Week 

Second  Week 

Third  Week 

Average 
Size 

Small 

Medium 

Large 

Small 

Medium 

Large 

Small 

Medium 

Large 

Pot  No.  I  (Rain  water) 

Pot  No.  2  (Soil  water) 

Loam 

Clay 

Humus 

Sand 

lU] 


EXERCISE   6 


THE  AIR  AS  A  SOURCE  OF  PLANT  FOOD 


Statement.  The  dry  matter,  or  that  portion  of  the  fresh  plant  remaining  after  the  water  is 
evaporated,  is  largely  composed  of  carbon.   The  growing  plant  secured  the  carbon  from  the  air. 

Object.   To  show  that  plants  obtain  food  from  the  air. 

Materials.  Green  twigs;  test  tube;  charcoal;  iron  spoon;  vinegar;  two  pots  of  growing  plants; 
clay  soil ;  a  shallow  pan. 

Directions,  (i)  Take  small  twigs  of  green  wood,  about  one  fourth  inch  in  diameter,  and  place 
them  in  a  test  tube.   Heat  until  all  the  smoke  and  gas  have  been  driven  off,  not  allowing  them  to  blaze. 

Examine  what  remains.  Compare  the  pieces  you 
have  heated  to  a  piece  of  charcoal.  Apply  a  flame 
to  one  of  the  pieces.  Charcoal  is  almost  pure 
carbon  and  is  made  in  a  method  similar  to  that 
used  here. 

Boil  some  of  the  twigs,  which  have  been 
heated,  in  water.  Boil  some  in  vinegar.  Place 
the  charcoal  sticks  in  an  iron  spoon  and  heat 
until  only  ash  is  left.  What  has  become  of  the 
carbon?  If  carbon  passed  into  the  air,  did  it 
leave  as  pure  carbon?  If  not,  with  what  did  it 
combine  and  what  is  the  compound  called  ?  De- 
scribe fully  how  carbon  enters  the  plant,  how  it  is 
fixed  and  in  what  common  forms  it  is  stored  in 
the  plant. 

(2)  Place  some  finely  powdered  clay  soil  in 
a  shallow  pan  and  add  water  slowly.  Stir  con- 
stantly, and  when  a  thin  batter  has  been  made  of 
the  soil,  pour  about  one-half  inch  of  it  around  the 
plants  in  one  of  the  pots.  Treat  the  two  pots 
alike  during  the  next  two  weeks  and  observe 
results. 

Questions.  Does  charcoal  burn  as  wood  burns?  Does  it  dissolve  in  water?  in  vinegar?  What  is 
the  source  of  carbon  used  by  plants?  Do  the  roots  absorb  the  carbon?  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have 
air  in  the  soil? 

References.   Waters,  H.  J.    Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  24-26.     Ginn  and  Company.    Coulter,  J.  M. 
Elementary  Studies  in  Botany,  pp.  268-269.   D.  Appleton  and  Company.    Lyon,  Fippin,  Buckman.    Soils 
their  Properties  and  Management,  pp.  480-488.   The  Macmillan  Company.    Hopkins,  C.  G.    Soil  Fertility 
and  Permanent  Agriculture,  pp.  13-15.   Ginn  and  Company. 


Fig.  8.    Showing  the  proportion  of  carbon  and  ash  in  corn  grains 

The  tube  at   the  left  contains  the  com  which   was   analyzed;   the 

middle  tube  contains  the  carbon  which  was  in  the  corn ;  the  tube  on 

the  right  contains  the  ash  which  was  in  the  corn. 


[12] 


surface 


EXERCISE  7 

HOW  TO  PLANT  THE  SEED 

Statement.  The  farmer  wishes  to  have  his  seeds  germinate  promptly  and  produce  rugged  and 
thrifty  plants.  He  sows  some  kinds  of  seeds  on  the  surface  and  covers  them  lightly.  Other  kinds  he 
plants  at  a  depth  of  several  inches.   In  the  depth  at  which  he  plants  his  seeds  the  farmer  is  governed 

principally  by  the  size  of  the  seed,  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  and  the  season  of  the  year. 

Object.  To  ascertain  what  factors  deter- 
mine the  depth  to  which  seeds  should  be 
planted,  and  particularly  to  learn  if  there  is 
any  relation  between  the  size  of  a  seed  and  the 
depth  to  which  it  should  be  planted. 

Materials.  Depth  planting  boxes  (Fig.  9) 
filled  with  clean,  fine  sand ;  two  dozen  seeds 
each  of  the  following :  timothy,  millet,  kafir, 
wheat,  cowpea,  and  corn. 

Directions.  Fill  a  depth  planting  box  with 
sand,  moisten  the  sand,  lay  the  box  on  its  side, 
remove  the  glass,  and  plant  the  seeds  next  to 
the  glass  and  replace  the  glass.  Plant  four 
seeds  of  each  kind  on  the  surface,  one-fourth,  one-half,  and  one  inch  deep,  also  two,  four,  and  six  inches 
deep  respectively.  Cover  the  seeds  planted  on  the  surface  with  blotting  paper  and  keep  them  moist. 
Keep  the  soil  moist  and  maintain  a  temperature  suitable  for  the  germination  of  seeds.  As  soon  as 
each  plant  appears  at  the  surface,  remove  it  and  examine  the  seed  under  the  magnifying  glass  to 
observe  the  amoimt  of  food  remaining  to  aid  the  plant  in  its  further  growth.  Record  results  des- 
ignating amoimts  as  none,  small,  medium,  and  large.  Make  note  of  the  size,  color,  and  vigor  of  the 
plants  produced  from  each  depth  of  planting.  Record  the  number  of  seeds  which  produced  plants  at 
each  depth  of  planting.  Note  and  show  by  drawings  where  the  whorl  of  feeding  roots  appeared  on 
the  plants  from  each  depth.  Allow  the  plants  to  grow  for  two  weeks  and  note  the  differences  in  the 
vigor  of  the  plants  from  each  depth  of  planting. 

Questions.  Did  the  seeds  tested  germinate  regardless  of  their  size  and  the  depth  to  which  they 
were  planted?  Did  plants  from  all  the  seeds  grow  sufficiently  to  reach  the  surface  regardless  of  the 
depth  to  which  they  were  planted  ?  Did  seeds  of  any  kind  fail  to  bring  plants  to  the  surface  from  any 
depth?  Explain  the  reason.  Did  you  notice  any  difference  in  the  size  and  vigor  of  the  different 
plants  when  they  came  up?  Explain.  In  sowing  timothy,  clover,  or  alfalfa  should  the  seed  be 
covered  as  deep  as  the  seed  of  oats,  cowpeas,  or  lima  beans?  Why?  Should  seeds  be  planted  as  deep 
when  the  soil  is  moist  as  when  dry  ?  Should  seeds  be  planted  as  deep  when  the  soU  is  cold  as  when 
it  is  warm,  and  why  ?   Should  corn  be  planted  as  deep  early  in  the  season  as  later  ?   Explain. 

Reference.   Waters,  H.  J.    Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  38.     Ginn  and  Company. 


Fig.  9.  A  convenient  device  for  studying  the  effect  of  depth  of 
planting  on  germination  of  seeds  and  early  growth  of  plants 


14 


EXERCISE  7  {Continued}. 
RELATION  OF   SIZE  OF   SEED  TO  DEPTH  OF  PLANTING 


Kind  of  seed        

Depth  of  planting 

o" 

0" 

0" 

0" 

0" 

0" 

c" 

0" 

Days  before  plants  appear   .... 

Food  left  in  seed 

Vigor 

Depth  of  planting 

Iff 

4 

1" 

4 

Iff 

4 

1" 
4 

1" 

* 

\" 

1" 

4 

1" 

* 

Days  before  plants  appear    .... 

Food  left  in  seed 

Vigor 

■ 

Depth  of  planting 

i" 

1/' 
2 

¥' 

¥' 

111 

2 

ill 
2 

r' 

r' 

Days  before  plants  appear    .... 

Food  left  in  seed 

Vigor 

Depth  of  planting 

.   i" 

i" 

1" 

1" 

i" 

i" 

l" 

l" 

Days  before  plants  appear    .... 

Food  left  in  seed 

Vigor 

Depth  of  planting 

2" 

2" 

2" 

2" 

2" 

2" 

2" 

2" 

15] 


EXERCISE  8 

WHEN  TO  PLANT  SEEDS 

Statement.  The  miniature  plant  in  the  seed  requires,  in  addition  to  the  food  stored  there,  proper 
conditions  of  temperature,  moisture,  light,  and  soil  for  its  growth.  Plants  differ  in  their  require- 
ments in  these  respects.  Some  seeds  may  be  safely  sown  in  winter  or  early  spring,  and  others  only 
in  summer.     Some  require  fertile  soil,  others  will  thrive  on  poor  land. 

Object.  A  study  of  the  difference  in  the  power  of  the  seeds  of  different  farm  and  garden  crops  to 
germinate  at  comparatively  low  temperatures  or  when  planted  in  the  cold  soil  of  early  spring  and  a 
comparison  of  the  power  of  the  different  plants  to  withstand  freezing  and  to  grow  during  cool  weather. 

Materials.  Fifty  seeds  each  of  timothy,  white  clover,  alfalfa,  mustard,  cabbage,  turnips,  rape,  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  corn,  cotton,  cowpeas,  garden  peas,  and  lima  beans. 

Directions.  If  land  is  available  outside  of  the  schoolroom,  plant  ten  seeds  of  each  kind  in 
beds  in  the  fall,  about  the  time  the  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  have  finished  sowing  their  winter 
wheat  or  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  farmers  sow  their  oats.  Fill  in  the  blank  form  on  the  opposite 
page.  If  outside  land  is  not  available,  the  seeds  may  be  planted  in  pots  or  boxes  in  the  schoolroom 
at  any  time  in  late  autumn  or  early  spring.  By  exposing  to  the  weather  the  pots  or  boxes  in  which  the 
seeds  are  planted,  the  desired  climatic  conditions  may  be  obtained. 

Record  the  number  of  plants  produced  in  each  bed,  the  date  when  the  first  plant  appe9,red  in  each, 
and  how  cold, weather  affects  the  growth  of  each.  Find  the  origin  of  each  of  the  plants  whose 
seeds  are  being  tested  and  see  whether  there  is  any  relation  between  the  climate  in  which  they  orig- 
inated and  the  power  of  the  seeds  to  germinate  at  a  low  temperature  and  of  the  young  plants  to  with- 
stand a  freezing  temperature. 

Questions.  Which  plants  withstood  the  frost  and  freezing  temperature  ?  Which  were,  killed  ? 
What  do  differences  in  reaction  to  cold  suggest  as  to  the  season  in  which  the  different  crops  should 
be  planted?  In  what  order  would  you  plant  the  following  spring-sown  crops :  oats,  rape,  corn,  garden 
peas,  cowpeas,  sorghum,  barley,  cotton,  lima  beans,  kafir,  and  milo? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  38.  Ginn  and  Company.  Piper,  C.  V. 
Forage  Plants  and  their  Culture,  pp.  86-87.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Osterhout,  W.  J.  V.  Experiments 
with  Plants,  p.  352.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hopkins,  C.  G.  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture, 
p.  576.   Ginn  and  Company. 


[16] 


EXERCISE  8  (Continued) 
THE  EFFECT  OF  TEMPERATURE  UPON   GERMINATION 


Kind  of  seed 

Country  where  plant  originated  .     .     . 

Average  temperature  of  that  countrj'  . 

Number  of  plants  which  appeared    .     . 

Highest  temperature       ....".. 

Lowest  temperature 

Average  temperature 

[17] 


EXERCISE  9 

HOW  SOME  PLANTS  ARE  PROPAGATED   WITHOUT  THE  USE  OF  SEED 

Statement.   Some  plants,  such  as  the  banana,  have  been  propagated  by  other  means  than  seeds 
so  long  that  they  have  lost  the  power  of  producing  seeds.    Others,  though  still  producing  seeds,  are  more 
readily  propagated  in  other  ways  than  by  planting  the  seeds. 

Object.   To  learn  how  plants  are  reproduced  without  the  use  of  seeds. 

Materials.  Mature  geranium,  coleus,  begonia,  and  carnation  plants;  neighboring 
blackberry  or  raspberry  bush  or  grapevine ;  young  shoots  of  willows ;  boxes  of  clean, 
fine  sand  with  pieces  of  glass  large  enough  to  cover  the  boxes. 

Directions,  i.  Cuttings.  Cut  pieces  of  geraniums,  coleus,  begonia,  and  carnations 
so  that  each  piece  consists  of  a  bud  (terminal  or  lateral),  one  or  two  leaves,  and  two 
or  three  inches  of  stem.  With  a  sharp  knife  or  scissors  cut  away  most  of  the  leaf  blade. 
Set  the  cuttings  in  sand  just  deep  enough  so  that  the  tip  of  the  bud  is  exposed.  Cover 
the  box  with  glass  so  that  a  small  amount  of  ventilation  is  secured.  After  twelve  or 
fourteen  days  carefully  lift  some  of  the  cuttings,  and  if  roots  are  started,  plant  each  cut- 
ting in  soil  in  a  small  pot,  taking 


Fig.  io.   Cutting 
from  geranium 


Such  cuttings  soon 

take  root  if  planted 

in  moist  sand 


Fig.  II.    Strawberry  plants  started  by  runners 
The  runners  develop  new  plants  at  the  nodes,  or  joints 


care  to  protect  it  against  drying, ' 

or  against  cold-air  currents.  Cut 

twigs  of  willow ;  place  them  in 
a  jar  of  water  for  a  few  days  until  roots  start 
at  the  joints,  then  plant  them  in  soil. 

2.  Layering.  Bend  a  branch  of  raspberry^ 
blackberry,  or  grapevine  to  the  ground,  cover 
it  with  four  or  five  inches  of  soil,  leaving  about 
a  foot  of  the  growing  tip  exposed.  In  six  weeks 
or  two  months  cut  the  old  branch  free  from  the  parent  plant,  dig  up  and  transplant  the  new  branch, 
which  in  this  time  should  have  developed  roots  from  the  buried  portion. 

3.  Runners.  Study  strawberry  plants  to  see  how  new  plants  are  started  naturally  in  strawberry 
patches. 

Questions.  What  practical  uses  are  made  in  your  neighborhood  of  these  methods  of  plant  propaga- 
tion? How  are  Irish  potatoes  propagated?  sweet  potatoes?  grapes?  roses?  willows?  What  aged 
wood  is  selected  for  propagation  of  the  grape?  the  rose?  Why? 

Reference.  Waters,  H.  J.   Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  35-45.   Girm  and  Company. 


[18] 


EXERCISE   10 


Fig.  12.    Budding 

A,  bark  cut  to  receive  bud,  as  shown  at  B ;    C,  bud  fastened  in  place ;    D,  growing 
bud ;  E,  P,  G,  showing  method  of  preparing  the  bud  for  insertion 


PROPAGATION  BY  GRAFTING  AND  BUDDING 

Statement.  Common  orchard  plants  produce  seed  abundantly  and  may  be  readily  propagated 
by  that  means.   But  the  seeds  of  such  plants  do  not  generally  "  come  true."    Seeds  of  a  red  apple 

may  produce  a  tree  that  will  bear  yel- 
low fruit ;  the  seeds  of  an  early-bearing 
peach  might  produce  a  tree  on  which 
late  peaches  are  borne.  To  make  sure 
that  fruit  of  the  variety  desired  will  be 
produced  by  the  trees  that  are  planted, 
orchard  trees  are  propagated  by  grafting 
and  budding. 

Object.  To  learn  how  to  successfully 
propagate  orchard  plants  by  grafting 
and  budding. 

Materials.     Growing    seedlings,    in 
August,  September,  or  the  early  spring ; 
scions  and  roots  of  apple  and  peach  trees  or  trees  near  by  which  may  be  used  for  ^ 

experiment;   a  sharp  knife;   rafl&a  fiber;  grafting  wax. 

Directions,  i .  Budding.  About  two  inches  above  the  soil  make  a  slit  i^^  inches 
long  in  the  bark  of  a  seedling.  Across  the  top  of  this  slit  make  another  cut  through 
the  bark  about  an  inch  long,  thus  forming  a  T.  Pull  the  bark  loose  along  the 
cut  enough  to  make  room  for  inserting  the  bud  which  is  obtained  from  the  tree  of 
the  desired  variety.  Cut  off  this  bud  and  a  small  portion  of  bark,  starting  about  i 
inch  below  the  bud  and  extending  ^  inch  above  the  bud.  The  bark  attached  should 
be  a  little  wider  than  the  bud  itself,  and  should  not  include  much,  if  any,  wood.  In- 
sert the  bud  in  the  "  T-felit,"  draw  the  side  bark  close  about  it,  and  secure  with  raffia 
or  twine,  both  below  and  above  the  bud.  When  the  bud  has  developed  well,  cut  ofif 
the  raffia,  and  when  it  has  developed  to  a  length  of  one  foot,  cut  the  original  top 
from  the  tree,  just  above  the  bud. 

2.  Root  grafting.  A  young  stem  of  the  desired  variety,  containing  3  or  4  buds 
and  from  6  inches  to  9  inches  long,  is  grafted  to  the  root  by  the  whip-grafting 
method.   The  result  is  the  same  as  a  budded  tree. 

3.  Whip  grafting.  The  tree  and  scion  to  be  joined  should  be  of  the  same 
diameter.  Each  is  cut  at  an  angle,  and  a  tongue  is  made  in  each  piece  by  slightly 
pushing  a  knife  into  the  v/ood.  The  scion  is  then  placed  on  the  stock,  cut  surface 
against  cut  surface,  and  the  tongues  lapped.  The  cambium  layers  on  the  stock  and 
scion  must  nneet ;  tying  will  help  to  hold  them  until  a  union  has  been  made. 

4.  Cleft  grafting.  In  cleft  grafting,  a  stem  of  large  diameter  —  i^-  inches  or 
larger  —  is  cut  square  off  and  a  split  made  diametrically  across.  This  is  held  open 
while  a  small  scion  with  the  end  cut  wedge-shaped  is  inserted  on  each  side,  with  the 
cambiimi  layer  of  stock  and  scion  touching.  The  wedging  tool  is  removed 
and   the   graft  waxed.      If  both  scions  grow,   the  weaker  may  be    cut   out   the    following   year. 

Make  grafts  on  seedlings  found  in  neighboring  orchards  and  plant  the  trees  at  the  proper  time. 
Record  the  work  done,  and  each  successive  year  have  the  class  in  agriculture  observe  the  preceding 
grafts  as  a  part  of  the  year's  work.   Also,  when  the  trees  bear  fruit,  have  the  class  note  the  fruit  on 

[20] 


Fig.  13.    Piece-root 
grafting 

a,  scion ;  A,  rootstock ; 

c,  scion  and  rootstock 

joined    and   wrapped 

for   protection 


EXERCISE  10  (Continued) 

grafted  stock  as  compared  with  that  on  the  native  stock.   Prepare  an  outline  statement  with  diagrams 
illustrating  the  procedure  in  different  kinds  of  grafting. 

Questions.  What  are  the  advantages  that  may  be  secured  by  the  practice  of  grafting  ?  In  former 
times  fruit  trees  were  usually  grafted  on  the  main  stem  a  foot  or  more  above  the  ground.  See  if 
you  can  locate  illustrations  of  that  type  of  grafts.  Why  is  root  grafting  now  most  commonly  used  in 
nurseries  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  38,  42-44.  Ginn  and  Company.  Wilkinson, 
A.  E.  The  Apple,  pp.  407-413.  Ginn  and  Company.  Coitlter,  J.  M.  Elementary  Studies  in  Botany,  pp.  330- 
332.   D.  Apple  ton  and  Company. 


[21 


PART    II.     THE    SOIL   AND    ITS    MANAGEMENT 


EXERCISE   11 
THE  FORMATION  AND  TRANSPORTATION  OF  SOILS 


Statement.   If  the  soils  of  the  world  were  swept  into  the  sea  and  the  rocks  beneath  were  left  bare, 
the  entire  surface  of  the  earth  would  again  become  covered  with  soil.   It  would  require  millions  of 

years  to  form  a  new  soil,  as  it  has  taken  millions  of  years  to  form  the  soil 
we  now  have.  Some  kinds  of  rocks  would  be  changed  into  soil  more  quickly 
than  others.  A  portion  of  the  soil  would  be  washed  or  blown  away  from 
where  it  was  formed  and  woyjd  be  deposited  elsewhere,  leaving  at  last  a 
2|^^  great  variation  in  the  soil  covering  the  earth.     Then,  as  now,  some  soils 

PJHP  would  be  coarse  and  others  fine ;    some  would  be  fertile  and  others  im- 

productive. 

Object.  To  learn  how  the  soils  of  the  neighborhood  were  formed  and 
how  they  are  classified. 

Materials.   Blank  for  recording  observations. 

Directions.  Make  a  trip  to  the  coimtry  to  study  the  soils  of  the  neigh- 
borhood and  to  ascertain  their  origin. 

1.  Observe  the  depth  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  in  a  number  of  locali- 
ties. Classify  the  types  of  soils  found  as  sedentary  or  transported.  De- 
scribe the  forces  which  have  had  most  to  do  with  the  formation  of  each 
class.  Whence  did  the  transported  soils  come  and  how  were  they  brought 
there  ? 

2.  Examine  stones  and  pebbles  taken  from  the  bed  of  a  stream  and 
note  the  smoothness  of  the  stones  as  compared  with  the  sharp  corners 
and  rough  surfaces  of  stones  not  subjected  to  the  action  of  running  water. 

3.  Find  a  large  bowlder  and  look  for  places  where  small  pieces  have 
been  slivered  from  its  surface  by  the  action  of  freezing  water. 

4.  Compare  hillside  and  valley  in  regard  to  the  color  of  the  soil,  and 
the  f  ertil- 


FlG.  14.  A  soil  which  was  trans- 
ported by  the  glaciers 

It  is  a  mixture  of  clay,  sand,  gravel, 

and  bowlders.      (Courtesy    of  the 

United  States  Bureau  of  Soils) 


ity  of  the 
hillside 

and  valley  as  determined  by  the 
plant  growth.  Observe  how  rapidly 
erosion  is  taking  place  and  in  what 
way  it  is  influenced  by  vegetation. 
Find  a  gully  forming  in  a  cultivated 
field.  Note  the  streams  in  the  neigh- 
borhood after  a  rain.  The  turbidity 
of  the  streams  is  an  indication  of 
the  destructive  erosion  taking  place. 
What  becomes  of  the  soil  washed  from 
the  fields  of  the  neighborhood  ? 


Fig.  15.    A  good  view  of  a  soil,  subsoil,  and  underlying  rock 
[22] 


EXERCISE  11  (Continued) 

Questions.  What  are  the  ways  by  which  soil  is  formed  ?  What  materials  besides  pulverized  rocks 
enter  into  the  composition  of  soils?  What  rocks  are  most  readily  converted  into  soil?  What  rocks 
make  the  best  soils?  Which  one  makes  the  poorest  soil?  From  which  fields  are  natural  agencies 
carrying  away  the  most  fertiUty  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  50-56.  Ginn  and  Company.  Tarr,  R.  S.  New 
Physical  Geography,  pp.  31-50.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Mosier  and  Gustafson.  Soil  Physics  and 
Management,  pp.  11-67.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Hunt  and  BtJRKETT.  Soils  and  Crops,  pp.  12-33. 
Orange  Judd  Company. 


[231 


EXERCISE   12 


COLLECTING  SOIL  SAMPLES 

Statement.  Scarcely  any  other  material  appears  to  be  of  so  little  interest  or  importance  as  the  soil 
which  we  thoughtlessly  tread  vmder  our  feet,  yet  it  is  the  source  of  more  wealth  than  all  other  materials 
in  the  world  combined.  More  than  twice  as  much  wealth  is  obtained  from  the  soils  of  the  United 
States  in  a  year  as  has  been  taken  from  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  the  United  States  in  all  the  years 
since  Columbus  discovered  America.   The  origin,  the  depth,  and  the  texture  of  a  soil  determine  largely 

the  kind  of  crops  it  will  produce  and  how 
long  it  will  remain  productive. 

Object.  To  procure  samples  of  different 
types  and  grades  of  soils  and  subsoils  for 
study  and  comparison,  and  to  study,  in  the 
field,  the  texture  and  color  of  soils  in  rela- 
tion to  their  agricultural  value. 

Materials.  Soil  auger,  ruler,  a  dozen  or 
more  one-quart  mason  jars,  a  piece  of  oil- 
cloth about  12  by  15  inches,  and  labels. 

Directions.  Sample  the  most  productive 
and  least  productive  soils  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, including  those  from  bottom  land, 
upland,  and  the  hillsides. 

To  obtain  a  sample  remove  the  vegetation 
and  other  rubbish  from  the  spot  where  the  sam- 
ple is  to  be  drawn.  Bore  to  a  depth  of  7  inches 
with  the  auger.  Pack  the  surface  around  the 
auger  with  the  foot  and  withdraw  the  auger. 


Fig.  16.    Method  of  taking  soU  samples 


Place  the  sample  on  the  oilcloth,  examine  it  as  suggested  below,  and  when  the  examination  is  finished,  pour 
the  sample  into  a  Mason  jar.  Seal  the  jar  and  label  it,  "No.  i  — Surface  Soil."  Insert  the  auger  in  the 
same  hole  and  remove  the  soil  to  the  beginning  of  the  subsoil.  Place  this  soil  in  another  jar ;  seal  it  and 
label,  "No.  2  —  Sub-surface  Soil."  Take  a  third  sample,  going  into  the  subsoil  about  12  inches,  and  label 
it,  "No.  3  —  Subsoil."  The  fourth  sample  should  be  taken  to  a  depth  of  about  28  inches  or  36  inches  and 
be  labeled,  "No.  4  —  Subsoil."  The  sealed  samples  are  to  be  taken  to  the  laboratory  for  examination  of  soil 
texture,  structure,  and  composition.  While  taking  the  samples,  observe  changes  in  color  and  the  depth  at 
which  they  occur.  Observe  the  apparent  changes  in  the  moisture  present  at  different  depths.  Note  the  "feel " 
of  the  soil  at  different  depths,  that  is,  whether  it  feels  coarse  or  gritty,  or  powdery  and  smooth,  when  rubbed 
between  the  thumb  and  fingers.  Note  changes  in  the  stickiness,  hardness,  porosity,  and  density  of  the  soil  at 
each  depth.     Discuss  the  results  of  your  observations  and  their  practical  application  to  soil  values. 

Questions.  Which  of  the  soils  sampled  are  fine  ?  Which  medium  ?  Which  coarse  ?  Which  has  the 
finer  texture,  the  soil  or  the  subsoil?  Why?  What  inferences  do  you  draw  from  the  variations  in  the 
color  of  soils  ?  What  are  the  common  colors  of  soils  ?  What  color  of  soil  and  subsoil  do  you  regard  as 
indicative  of  a  productive  soil  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  58-64.  Ginn  and  Company.  Mosier  and 
GusTAFSON.  Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  116-123.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Hall,  A.  D.  The 
Soil,  pp.  47-50.   E.  P.  Button  and  Company. 

Note.  As  much  as  two  or  three  bushels  each  of  washed  sand,  rich  garden  loam,  and  stiff  clay  should  be  secured 
and  stored  in  bins  for  use  in  later  experiments  in  crop  growth  and  soU  management. 

[24] 


EXERCISE  12  {Continued) 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  SOILS 


Sample 
Nltiber 

Kind  of  Soil 

Color 

Texture 

Sedentary 

Transported 

Coarse 

Medium 

Fine 

25 


EXERCISE   13 


Wm\ 


THE  PHYSICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS 

Statement.  By  physical  analysis  the  constituents  of  a  soil,  such  as  vegetable  matter,  gravel,  sand, 
and  clay,  are  determined  and  the  properties  of  these  materials  observed. 

Object.   To  determine  the  physical  constituents  of  the  soil. 

Materials.  Finely  screened  samples  of  soil  collected  in  a  previous  exercise ;  Mason  fruit  jars ; 
lime;  scales  accurate  to  one- tenth  gram. 

Directions,  i .  Weigh  out  one  hundred  grams  of  air-dry  soil  and  heat  it  at  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water  for  an  hour.  Reweigh  and  note  the  loss  of  water.  Heat  again  for  an  hour  and  reweigh.  If  a  loss  in 
weight  is  shown,  repeat  until  the  weight  is  constant.  Compute  the  loss  of  moisture  in  per  cent  of  the 
original  weight.   Repeat  for  each  soil  to  be  tested,  and  tabulate  the  results.    Correlate  the  loss  due  to 

heating  the  soils  at  this  tem- 
perature with  the  fineness  and 
structure  of  the  soils  as  already 
determined. 

2.  Heat  the  same  sample  of 
soil  to  a  red  heat  until  only  a 
reddish  ash  remains.  As  soon 
as  the  sample  is  cool  reweigh 
and  compute  the  loss.  Classify 
the  soils  with  respect  to  their 
loss  from  heating  at  this  high 
temperature.  To  what  is  the 
loss  of  weight  due?  Which  has 
lost  the  greater  amoimt  of 
weight,  the  soil  or  the  subsoil? 

3.  Weigh  three  empty  quart 
jars.  Place  a  tablespoonful  of 
the  soil  which  has  been  heated 

in  one  of  the  fruit  jars  and  fill  it  half  full  of  water.  Seal  the  jar  and  shake  thoroughly.  Let  it  stand  for 
thirty  minutes  and  shake  it  again  for  ten  minutes.  Let  the  soil  settle  for  one  minute,  then  pour  off  all 
the  water  into  the  second  jar.  Let  the  water  in  the  second  jar  stand  for  thirty  minutes  and  pour  the 
water  from  it  into  the  third  jar.  Evaporate  the  water  in  each  jar.  Note  the  size  of  the  particles  in 
each  of  the  jars.  Compare  them  imder  the  microscope.  Determine  the  weight  of  dry  material  in  each 
jar.  Considering  the  loss  of  organic  matter  as  determined  in  2,  compute  the  percentage  of  organic 
matter,  sand,  silt,  and  clay  in  each  soil  examined.  On  the  basis  of  this  comparison  classify  them  as 
clay  soils,  sandy  soils,  and  loams.  On  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  organic  matter  contained  in  the  soils, 
classify  them  with  respect  to  their  productive  power.  Compare  your  results  with  the  field  notes  made 
when  the  samples  were  taken. 

Questions.  How  did  the  color  of  each  soil  sample  compare  with  the  amount  of  organic  matter 
contained  in  it?  How  did  the  water  contained  in  the  soil  compare  with  the  organic  matter  present? 
How  did  the  subsoil  compare  with  the  surface  soil  in  amount  of  organic  matter  ?  How  did  the  subsoil 
compare  with  the  soil  in  the  amount  of  clay  it  contained  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  58-66.  Ginn  and  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin, 
BucKMAN.  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management,  pp.  83-108.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Burkett,  C.  W. 
Soils,  pp.  25-29,  35-36.   Orange  Judd  Company. 

[26] 


iirf 


a  h  c  d  I  J  (J 

Fig.  17.   The  physical  constituents  of  a  loam  soil 

0,  gravel ;  b,  coarse  sand ;  c,  medium  sand ;  d,  fine  sand ;  e,  very  fine  sand ;  /,  silt ;  g,  day. 
(Courtesy  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Soils.) 


EXERCISE  13  {Continued) 
PHYSICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS 


Soil 
Sample 

XniBER 

Weight 

BEFORE 

Heating 

Weight 

after 

Heating 

Loss  OF 
Water 

Weight 

AFTER 

Burning 

Loss  OF 
Organic 
Matter 

Weight  of 

Sand  in 

Jar  No.  i 

Weight  of 

Silt  in 
Jar  No.  2 

Weight  of 

Clay  in 

Jar  No.  3 

Classification  of  the 
Soil  Sample 

' 

i 

1 

1 

[27] 


EXERCISE   14 

THE  TEXTURE  AND   STRUCTURE  OF  SOILS 

Statement.  The  size  of  the  soil  grains  and  their  arrangement,  together  with  the  amount  of  organic 
matter  present,  determine  the  power  of  the  soil  to  absorb  and  to  hold  water.  These  factors,  to  a  large 
extent,  determine  also  the  mellowness  or  tilth  of  the  soil. 

Object.  To  determine  the  size,  shape,  color,  and  arrangement  of  the  soil  grains  and  to  form  an 
idea  of  the  amount  of  organic  matter  present  in  a  soil. 

Materials.   Samples  of  air-dry  soil ;  sources  of  heat ;  a  microscope. 

Directions,  i.  Take  lumps  of  dry  soil  from  each  sample  collected  and  crumble  them  in  the  hand, 
noting  the  ease  with  which  the  soil  mass  breaks.   This  gives  an  impression  of  the  manner  in  which 


abed 
Fig.  i8.    Soil  particles  as  they  appear  under  the  microscope 

Magnified  150  times;   a,  coarse  sand;  i,  medium  sand;  c,  very  fine  sand;  d,  silt.     The  particles  of  clay  are  so  small  that  they  are  not  visible 

under  the  magnification  used. 

the  soil  will  act  when  plowed,  A  soil  naturally  cloddy  and  hard  to  crush  usually  contains  a  large 
amount  of  clay  and  a  small  amount  of  organic  matter. 

2.  Place  a  few  soil  grains  representing  the  average  of  the  soil  on  a  microscopic  slide,  moisten  with 
a  drop  of  water,  and  examine  them  under  the  microscope.  Classify  the  soil  grains  according  to  their 
color.   Notice  the  presence  of  a  black  material  clinging  to  the  soil  grains.   This  is  organic  matter. 

3.  Pour  a  little  water  upon  a  liunp  of  soil  from  each  sample  and  observe  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  water  is  absorbed.  This  gives  an  indication  of  the  readiness  with  which  the  water  may  be  taken  up 
by  soils.  Soils  having  a  gray  tint  when  dry  become  almost  black  when  wet.  When  there  is  only  a  shght 
change  in  color  upon  wetting,  the  absence  of,  or  a  deficiency  in,  organic  matter  usually  may  be  inferred. 

4.  By  noting  the  effect  of  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  upon  the  different  types  of  soil,  their 
texture  and  structure  may  be  determined.  Use  heavy  clay  soil,  garden  loam,  and  sandy  loam.  From 
each  sample  make  two  well-puddled  mud  balls,  about  the  consistency  of  putty.  Place  one  ball  of  each 
soil  where  it  will  dry  at  room  temperature  and  place  the  others  where  they  will  freeze  and  thaw  daily. 
When  the  samples  are  dry,  pulverize  each  with  the  hands,  noting  the  difference  in  the  hardness  as 
influenced  by  the  action  of  freezing  and  thawing. 

[28] 


EXERCISE  14  {Continued) 

5.  Study  the  structure  of  the  soil  grains,  that  is,  whether  they  consist  of  single  particles  or  a 
number  of  soil  particles.  If  single,  they  will  appear  transparent  under  the  microscope.  The  black  or 
dark  particles  imless  covered  with  organic  matter  are  compound.  Compute  the  percentage  of  single 
and  of  compound  particles. 

Questions.  Where  are  the  most  friable  or  crumbly  soils  located, — on  the  table  land,  slope,  or  bottom, 
and  why  ?  How  does  structure  affect  the' value  of  soils  ?  What  are  the  principal  factors  determining  the 
structure  of  soils? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  58-64.  Ginn  and  Company.  Burkett,  C.  W. 
Soils,  pp.  34-40.  Orange  Judd  Company.  King,  F.  H.  Physics  of  Agriculture,  pp.  51-53.  Mrs.  F.  H.  King. 
HiLGAKD,  E.  W.  Soils,  pp.  83-107.  The  Macmillan  Company.  King,  F.  H.  Physics  of  Agriculture,  p.  51. 
Merrill,  G.  P.   Rocks,  Rock  Weathering,  and  Soils,  p.  287.    Hilgard.  Soils,  pp.  83-107. 

MICROSCOPIC  EXAMINATION  OF   SOIL  PARTICLES 


Number  of  Son.  Grains 

Color 

Shape 

Size 

Structure 

Type 

Average 

291 


EXERCISE  15 


THE  TILTH  OF  SOILS 

Statement.  The  presence  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  has  the  property  of  causing  the  soil  grains 
to  cling  together  in  aggregates,  making  the  soil  mellow  and  crumbly.    Therefore,  a  soil  rich  in  organic 

matter  is  usually  a  soil  of  fine  tilth.  The  presence  of  organic  mat- 
ter in  sandy  soil  increases  its  water-holding  power  without  de- 
stroying its  open  or  porous  structure.  The  presence  of  lime 
makes  the  soil  mellow  by  causing  soil  aggregates  to  form. 

Object.  To  show  the  effect  of  the  presence  of  organic  matter 
""^^^(^^^^H     and  lime  upon  the  structure  and  tilth  of  soils. 

^B^^^B  Materials.     Clay  soil  ;  dry,   finely  pulverized   barnyard  ma- 

^aBB      nure ;  three  shallow  pans ;  three  flowerpots  or  tin  cans ;  seeds  of 

^B     corn  or  beans;  two  eight-inch  test  tubes  or  slender  bottles,  as 

olive  or  pickle  bottles;  tablespoon;  teaspoon;  one-half  pint  of 

air-slaked  Hme. 

Directions,  i.  Stir  a  pan  of  clay  and  water  until  a  smooth 
batter  is  formed.  Pour  each  of  the  three  shallow  pans  almost  full 
of  this  batter.  To  one  add 
one-fourth  pint  of  pulverized 
barnyard  manure  and  stir  it 
into  the  batter.  To  the  second 
pan  add  a  tablespoonful  of 
Ume  and  stir  it  into  the  bat- 
ter.   Leave  the  third  pan  of 

batter  untreated.     Set  them  all  aside,  and  when  they  are  dry, 

compare  the  ease  with  which  they  crvmible.     Compare  the  crumb 

structure  under  the  microscope. 

2.  Fill  three  flowerpots  each  three-fourths  full  of  clay.  Fill 
one  of  them  the  remainder  of  the  way  with  pulverized  manure. 
Pour  out  the  clay  and  manure,  thoroughly  mix  and  replace 
them  in  the  pot.  To  the  clay  in  another  pot  add  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  lime  and  stir  well  into  the  soil.  Leave  the  other 
pot  imtreated.  Plant  seeds  of  com  or  beans  in  each  pot,  and 
water  as  necessary.  Compare  the  rapidity  of  growth.  Explain 
the  difference. 

3.  Place  one-half  teaspoonful  of  finely  pulverized  clay  soil  in 
each  of  the  two  test  tubes,  and  to  one  add  one-fourth  teaspoon- 
ful  of  powdered,  air-slaked  lime.     Fill  both  with   water  and 
stir  vigorously.     Set  them  aside  and  note  which  clears  first. 
ence  in  the  rate  at  which  the  soil  settles  in  the  two  tubes 
and  why? 

Questions.  Which  pot  of  soil  is  the  best  aerated?  Why?  How  does  organic  matter  affect  soil 
structure  ?   How  did  Ume  influence  the  structure  of  the  soil  particles  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentilals  of  Agriculture,  p.  no.  Ginn  and  Company.  Bxtrkett,  C.  W. 
Soils,  pp.  103-108.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Lyon,  Pippin,  Buckman.  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Manage- 
ment, pp.  150-160,  190-193,  218.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

[301 


Fig.  19.    A  soil  of  excellent  tilth 


*.•* 


^,i>m^^^ 


Fig.  20.    A  soil  which  lacks  tilth 

Explain  the  reason  for  the  differ- 
Which  soil  has  the  better  tilth, 


EXERCISE   16 

HOW  WATER   GETS  INTO  THE  SOIL 

Statement.  Drought  is  the  universal  disaster.  The  crops  of  nearly  every  part  of  the  globe  are 
injured  by  drought  at  some  season  of  every  year.  In  some  regions,  two  days  after  a  heavy  rainfall 
the  crops  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture  because  the  soil  is  too  shallow  to  absorb  and  hold  much 


Fig.  21.    Apparatus  to  illustrate  how  water  gets  into  the  soil 

moisture  and  nearly  all  the  water  which  fell  ran  off  the  surface.  The  water  run-off  on  many  soils  is 
greater  than  the  water  penetration.  It  is  the  water  which  enters  the  soil  and  is  held  within  reach 
of  the  plant  roots  that  is  of  value  to  growing  crops. 

Object.  To  study  the  conditions  which  favor  the  penetration  of  water  into  the  soil  and  the 
percolation  of  water  through  the  soil. 

Materials.  Three  percolation  tubes  or  lamp  chimneys ;  three  glass  tumblers ;  graduated  measuring 
glass ;  clay,  loam,  and  sandy  soils ;  finely  pulverized  manure ;  balances ;  three  boxes,  each  of  the 
same  size;  cheesecloth;  string;  a  sprinkling  can. 

Directions,  i.  Cut  one  end  of  each  box  slightly  V-shaped,  as  shown  in  Fig.  21,  and  fill  each 
level  full  with  clay  soil  firmly  compacted.  Level  the  surface  the  same  shape  as  the  end  of  each  box 
and  then  make  a  soil  mulch  in  one  of  the  boxes  by  stirring  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  three  inches.  Leave 
the  second  box  of  soil  firm  and  smooth.  Mulch  the  third  with  finely  pulverized  barnyard  manure 
mixed  into  the  surface  inch  of  soil.  Place  the  boxes  on  an  inch  strip  (Fig.  21}  to  represent  a  natural 
slope,  and  place  vessels  under  the  end  of  each  box  to  catch  the  water  that  runs  off.  With  a  sprinkling 
can  apply  to  each  of  the  boxes  of  soil  a  known  and  equal  amount  of  water.  Sprinkle  slowly.  Measure 
the  amount  that  runs  off  and  compute  the  percentage  of  absorption  and  penetration  in  each  case. 
Explain  results. 

2.  Perform  a  similar  experiment,  using  compacted  clay  loam  and  sandy  soil  respectively.  Com- 
pare results  and  explain. 

3.  Place  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  in  the  bottom  of  each  percolation  tube  or  tie  pieces  over  the  bottom 
of  lamp  chimneys  if  they  are  used.  Fill  one  tube  with  clean,  dry  sand  to  within  an  inch  of  the  top. 
Likewise,  fill  the  second  tube  with  dry,  finely  screened  loam,  and  the  third  with  finely  screened  clay. 
Jar  each  tube  lightly  to  settle  the  soil  and  suspend  them  in  a  percolation  rack  or  in  some  manner  so  that 
tumblers  may  be  inserted  under  them.  Pour  water  into  each  tube,  keeping  the  water  level  near  the  top 
of  the  tube.  Note  the  time  it  takes  the  water  to  begin  to  drip  from  the  bottom.  After  the  water 
has  been  dripping  from  a  tube  for  a  time  and  the  dripping  has  become  constant,  catch  the  water  that 
percolates  from  each  soil  in  fifteen  minutes.  Measure  the  water  and  compare  the  percentage  that  perco- 
lates from  each  soil.   This  is  known  as  free  or  gravitational  water. 

[32] 


EXERCISE  16  {Continued) 

Questions.  Which  soil  absorbs  water  most  readily  ?  What  is  the  eflfect  of  a  surface  mulch  upon  the 
amount  of  water  which  penetrated  the  soil  ?  Which  soil  permits  the  most  rapid  percolation  ? '  How 
may  tillage  be  utilized  to  increase  the  absorption  of  water  by  soils  ?  What  is  meant  by  gravitational,  or 
free,  water  ?   What  is  meant  by  the  water  table  of  a  soil,  and  what  factors  determine  its  height  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  64-66.  Ginn  and  Company.  Roberts,  I.  P. 
The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  pp.  72-80.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin,  Buckman.  Soils,  their  Proper- 
ties and  Management,  pp.  264-265,  279,  713.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Burkett,  C.  W.  Soils,  pp.  167-168. 
Orange  Judd  Company.  Mosier  and  Gustafson.  Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  217-222.  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  Company. 

RECORD    OF   RESULTS 


Kind  of 
Soil 

Soil  Treatment 

Total  Water 
Applied 

Amount  of 
Sltiface  Run-off 

Amount 

Percolating 

through 

Amount 
Retained 

, 

k 


1331 


EXERCISE   17 


THE  FILM,  OR  CAPILLARY,  WATER  OF  SOILS 

Statement.  After  the  free,  or  gravitational,  water  has  passed  out  of  the  surface  soil  and  the  soil  is 
dry  enough  to  be  cultivated,  there  yet  remains  considerable  moisture  as  a  thin  film  around  the  soil 
particles  and  in  the  small  soil  pores.  It  is  this  film,  or  capillary,  water  which  growing  plants  absorb  and 
which  brings  to  the  plant  its  mineral  food  dissolved  from  the  soil.  In  general,  the  more  such  moisture  a 
soil  can  hold,  the  better  the  crops  growing  upon  it  can  withstand  drought. 

Object.  To  show  the  relation  of  the  size  of  the  soU  particles  and  the  presence  of  organic  matter  to 
the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  hold  film  water. 

Materials.  Glass  tumblers ;  a  deep  vessel,  as  a  four-gallon  crock ;  three  soil  tubes,  or  lamp  chim- 
neys ;  soils  of  various  types ;  some  small  pebbles ;  cheesecloth ;  balances. 

Directions,  i .  Fill  one  tumbler  half  full  of  pebbles  and  place  in  another  tumbler  an  equal  volume 
of  soil.  Pour  enough  water  into  each  tumbler  to  cover  or  saturate  the  pebbles  and  soil  respectively. 

Pour  off  into  separate  tumblers  that  water  which  wiU  pour  from  each 
tumbler.   Measure  and  compute  the  percentage  of  water  retained. 

2.  Place  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  in  the  bottom  of  each  of  the  per- 
forated soil  tubes  or  tie  it  over  the  bottom  of  lamp  chimneys. 
Number  and  weigh  the  soil  tubes  or  lamp  chimneys  thus  prepared. 
Fill  one  tube  with  washed  sand,  another  with  loam,  and  another  with 
clay.  Jar  each  slightly  to  settle  the  soil,  which  should  compact  to 
within  about  an  inch  of  the  top  of  the  tube.  Reweigh  each  tube  and 
determine  by  subtraction  the  weight  of  its  contents.  Place  the  tubes 
in  the  large  vessel  provided  and  pour  water  around  them  imtil  it 
stands  a  little  higher  than  the  soil  in  the  tubes.  Note  the  time  re- 
quired for  the  water  to  reach  the  surface  of  each  soil.  Explain  the 
cause  for  the  differences.  When  all  the  tubes  show  water  at  the  sur- 
face, remove  them  and  wipe  the  tubes  dry.  Immediately  weigh  each 
tube  and  compute  the  amount  of  water  absorbed  by  each  soil.  Cover  each  tube  and  set  aside  where 
the  water  will  drain  away.  Weigh  each  tube  at  the  end  of  an  hour,  then  at  the  end  of  six  hours,  and 
daily  thereafter  until  each  of  the  tubes  remains  at  a  constant  weight.   Tabulate  and  explain  all  results. 

Questions.  When  the  soil  in  the  tubes  showed  moisture  at  the  surface  did  it  contain  only  film 
water  or  gravitational  water  as  well?  After  all  the  water  has  drained  away  that  will,  what  kind 
of  water  does  the  soil  contain?  Do  your  results  show  any  difference  in  the  time  required  for 
the  water  to  reach  the  surface  in  the  tubes  in  different  soils?  In  which  was  the  longest  time 
required?  In  which  was  the  shortest  time  required?  What  type  of  soil  will  retain  the  greater 
amount  of  fihn  water,  clay,  loam,  fine  sand,  coarse  sand,  or  gravel,  and  why?  In  which  type  of  soil 
may  the  water  table  be  the  deepest  and  still  be  of  service  to  the  crops?  Which  type  of  soil  requires 
that  the  water  table  be  near  the  surface  ?  Why  will  a  fine  soil  retain  more  film  water  than  a  coarse 
one?  On  which  of  the  following  soils  will  plants  best  withstand  wet  weather:  (i)  soil  underlaid  with 
rock,  near  the  surface ;  (2)  stiff  clay;  (3)  silt  or  loam;  (4)  fine  sand;  (5)  loam  sand;  (6)  coarse  gravel  ? 
Give  reasons  for  your  answer.    On  which  of  these  soils  will  plants  best  withstand  drought  and  why  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  64-66.  Ginn  and  Company.  Mosier  and 
GusTAFSON.  Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  194-215.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Burkett,  C.  W.  Soils, 
pp.  37-38.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Stoddard,  C.  W.  The  Chemistry  of  Agriculture,  pp.  179-183.  Lea  & 
Febiger.  Lyon,  Fippin,  Buckman.  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management,  pp.  206-213.  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

[34] 


Fig.  22.     The  structure  of  the  soil 
0,  soil  grain ;  h,  water  film ;  c,  pore  space 


EXERCISE  17  (Continued) 
WATER  HOLDING  POWER  OF  SOILS 


Tube  No.  1 

Tube  No.  2 

Tube  No.  3 

Weight  of  tube  and  soil 

Weight  of  the  soil     .     . 

Weight  when  saturated  with  water 

Weight  of  water  absorbed 

1 

Weight  at  end  of  one  hour 

Weight  at  end  of  six  hours 

Weight  at  end  of  one  day       ....                    .... 

Weight  at  end  of  two  days 

Weight  at  end  of  three  days       

! 

Weight  at  end  of  four  days 

Weight  at  end  of  five  days 

Amount  of  free  water  lost 

Amount  of  capillary  water  lost 

Amount  of  water  retained                                    

I 


35 


EXERCISE   18 


THE  MOVEMENT  OF  FILM,   OR  CAPILLARY,  WATER   IN  THE  SOIL 

Statement.  Film,  or  capillary,  water  is  capable  of  moving  through  the  soil.  Its  movement  is  always 
toward  the  driest  part  of  the  soil.  If  the  subsoil  is  driest,  the  movement  is  downward ;  if  the  surface 
soil  is  driest,  the  movement  is  upward.  Large  quantities  of  moisture  are  stored  in  the  subsoU  at  depths 
which  the  plant  roots  cannot  conveniently  reach,  but  by  means  of  capillary  action  the  moisture  is 
brought  within  reach  of  the  plants.   Soils  vary  in  the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  films  of  water  may 

pass  through  them  and  in  the  depth  from  which 
moisture  may  be  raised.  This  is  called  the  capillary 
power  of  a  soil. 

I<^         [H|  II u [^j tfu  Object.   To  study  the  capillary  power  of  dif- 

*\^,         ,„,  ,_,  I  ii-  ,j.i    =^  \  ferent  types  of  soils. 

Materials.  Sand;  light  sandy  loam;  silt  loam; 
clay;  four  strong  glass  tubes  (i^  to  2  inches  in 
diameter  and  2  or  3  feet  long)  or  four  lamp  chim- 
neys ;  percolation  rack ;  four  shallow  pans ;  cheese- 
cloth; string. 

Directions.  Tie  cheesecloth  over  the  bottoms 
of  the  four  glass  tubes  or  lamp  chimneys  and  place 
them  in  the  percolation  rack.  Fill  each  tube  with  a 
different  type  of  soil  and  jar  it  to  settle  the  soil. 
Let  the  bottom  of  each  tube  rest  in  a  shallow  pan 
and  pour  water.into  the  pans.  Keep  the  water  level, 
the  same  in  all  the  pans,  and  observe  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  water  rises  through  the  soil.  Meas- 
ure the  height  to  which  the  water  rises  every  fifteen 


Fig.  23. 


Rack   and    tubes    for   testing  the    movement   of 
capillary  water  in  the  soil 

minutes  for  an  hour.     If  glass  tubing  is  used,  measure  the  height  to  which  the  water  rises  in  five  hours 

in  each  soil ;   in  one  day.     Record  the  amount  of  water  taken  up  by  each  soil  in  one  hour ;   in  one 

day ;  in  one  week. 

Apply  the  results  obtained  and  explain  their  bearing  upon  the  value  of  the  different  types  of  soil 

of  the  neighborhood.    Also  explain  what  factors  affect  the  capillary  power  of  soils  and  how  this 

power  may  be  influenced  by  the  way  in  which  the  soil  is  managed. 

Questions.  In  which  soil  did  the  water  rise  with  the  greatest  rapidity  ?  In  which  did  it  move  most 
slowly?  If  the  long  tubes  are  used,  in  which  soil  did  the  moisture  reach  the  greatest  height?  How 
may  the  capillary  power  of  a  soil  be  increased  ?  How  may  the  soil  in  which  water  rises  rapidly  for  a 
short  distance  and  then  stops  be  treated  so  as  to  cause  water  to  rise  to  a  greater  height  ?  Write  state- 
ments describing  capillary  (and  film)  water  and  free  (or  gravitational)  water  and  the  value  of  each 
to  growing  plants.  When  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  loose  and  open,  as  when  cultivated,  does  the 
moisture  rise  to  the  surface?  Why?  What  means  are  used  to  prevent  capillary  moisture  from 
reaching  the  surface,  and  what  is  the  practical  effect?  How  does  such  practice  affect  the  power  of 
crops  to  resist  drought?  What  is  the  effect  of  rolling  upon  the  capillary  rise  of  water  in  the  surface 
soil?   Why  does  the  farmer  usually  roll  the  land  after  sowing  small  seed  like  millet  in  dry  ground? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  64-66.  Ginn  and  Company.  Mosier  and 
GusTAFSON.  Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  206-208.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin,  Buck- 
KAN.   Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management,  pp.  221-243.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[36] 


EXERCISE  18  (Continued) 
CAPILLARY  MOVEMENT  OF  WATER  IN  SOILS 


Soil  Tube  No.  1 

Son,  Tube  No.  2 

Soil  Tube  No.  3 

Soil  Tube  No.  4 

Height  of  water  in  fifteen  minutes    .     . 

Height  in  thirty  minutes 

Height  in  forty-five  minutes    .... 

Height  in  one  hour 

Height  in  one  day 

Height  in  one  week. 

Soil  Tube  No.  1 

Soil  Tube  No.  2 

Soil  Tube  No.  3 

Soil  Tote  No.  4 

Amount  of  water  taken  up  in  one  hour  . 

Amount  in  one  day 

Amount  in  one  week       

[371 


EXERCISE   19 


THE  SOIL  MOISTURE  WHICH  PLANTS  CAN  USE 

Statement.  The  amount  of  soil  water  which  enables  the  plant  to  grow  most  rapidly  is  called  the 
optimum  moisture  content.   The  least  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil  which  will  enable  the  plant  to 

live  in  that  soil  is  called 
the  critical  moisture  con- 
tent. Plants  die  from  lack 
of  moisture  before  it  is  all 
removed  from  the  soil. 

Object.  To  determine 
whether  or  not  all  soils 
give  their  water  to  growing 
plants  equally  freely  and 
fully,  and  whether  the 
critical  moisture  content 
is  the  same  for  different 
types  of  soils. 

Materials.  Three  tin 
cans  or  flowerpots ;  lettuce, 
tomato,  or  cabbage  plants ; 
com  kernels  or  lima  beans ; 
balances  ;  garden  soil  ; 
evaporating  dishes. 

Directions.  Fill  one 
flowerpot  with  each  of  the 
following:  clay,  loam,  and 
sandy  soils.  Transplant 
some  tomato,  lettuce,  or 
cabbage  plants  into  each 
of  the  three  pots  of  soil. 
Plant  com  kemels  or  lima  beans  in  the  pots  and  grow  them  for  three  weeks  before  beginning  the 
test.  Keep  the  plants  imder  conditions  favorable  to  growth  until  they  attain  a  good  size.  Water  freely. 
Remove  a  ten-gram  sample  of  soil  from  each  pot  at  a  depth  of  an  inch  below  the  surface.  Weigh 
each,  and  after  heating  for  two  hours  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  reweigh.  Compute  the  per- 
centage of  water  present  in  each  soil. 

Cease  watering  and  observe  the  plants  daily  for  evidence  that  they  are  suffering  for  lack  of  moisture. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  in  any  soil  have  wilted,  remove  a  ten-gram  sample  of  soil  from  this  pot  and  deter- 
mine moisture  content.  Compute  the  percentage  of  moisture  present  in  the  soil.  By  subtraction 
determine  the  percentage  of  moisture  given  up  by  the  soil  before  the  plant  shows  signs  of  suffering. 
When  the  plants  in  the  other  soils  are '.. Hted  as  badly  as  they  were  in  the  first  soil,  remove  a  sample  and 
test  and  compute  as  before. 

Compare  the  soils  as  to  the  percentage  of  water  present  in  them  when  they  no  longer  support 
plant  life. 

Questions.  Which  type  of  soil  gave  its  moisture  most  freely  and  fully  to  the  plant  ?  What  is  the 
stmcture  of  a  soil  which  gives  up  its  water  generously  ?  In  which  type  of  soil  will  plants  best  with- 
stand drought?  What  is  the  relation  between  the  tilth  of  a  soil  and  its  capacity  to  carry  plants  safely 

[381 


Fig.  24.     Optimum  and  critical  moisture  content 

The  picture  at  the  left  shows  a  plant  growing  in  a  soil  with  an  optimum  moisture  content ;  the  one  at 

the  right  shows  a  plant  growing  in  a  soil  in  which  the  moisture  content  has  reached  the  critical  stage. 

The  soil  in  which  the  plant  is  wilted  contains  as  much  as  4  per  cent  of  moisture. 


EXERCISE  19  {Continued) 

through  a  drought  ?  Classify  the  soils  of  your  father's  farm  or  of  some  farm  in  the  neighborhood  with 
respect  to  their  ability  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  64-66.  Ginn  and  Company.  Mosiee  and 
GusTAFSoN.  Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  212-213.  J-  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Lyon,  Pippin,  Buck- 
man.  Soils,  their  Property  and  Management,  pp.  252-260.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

AMOUNT  OF  MOISTURE  IN  THE   SOIL  WHICH  THE  PLANTS   CAN  USE 


Sample 
Number 

Kind  of  Soil 

Moisture  Content 
AT  Beginning 

Moisture  Content 
when  Plant  wilted 

Percentage  of 

Moisture  given  up 

BY  THE  Soil 

^ 

t 


[39] 


EXERCISE   20 

THE  EFFECTS  OF  A  SOIL  MULCH 

Statement.  A  mulch  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  increases  the  water  available  to  growing  crops  in 
three  important  ways:  (i)  it  helps  the  moisture  which  falls  on  the  surface  to  get  into  the  soil;  (2) 
it  helps  to  prevent  the  waste  of  this  moisture  through  the  growth  of  weeds ;  (3)  it  reduces  evapo- 
ration of  moisture  from  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Object.   To  compare  the  different  forms  of  mulches  as  to  their  value  in  conserving  soil  moisture. 

Materials.  Twelve  flowerpots  or  tin  cans ;  loam ;  clay ;  sand ;  balances. 

Directions,  i .  Label  each  flowerpot,  weigh  it,  and  record  the  weight.  Fill  four  of  them  with  fine 
clay,  four  with  loam,  and  four  with  sandy  soil.  Use  air-dry  soil  in  each  case.  Reweigh  and  record  the 
weight  of  the  soil.  In  one  pot  of  each  soil  plant  weed  seeds,  watering  as  necessary,  and  allow  them  to 
get  well  started  before  continuing  the  exercise.  Saturate  each  soil  with  water ;  weigh  and  determine  the 
percentage  of  water  retained  by  each.  When  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to  work,  stir  the  top 
inch  of  soil  sufficient  to  make  a  soil  mulch  in  one  pot  of  each  kind  of  soil.  Remove  an  inch  of  the  surface 
soil  from  one  pot  of  each  kind  of  soil  and  replace  with  an  equal  weight  of  dry  dust.  Leave  the  other 
pots  untreated.  Weigh  each  pot  and  record  the  weight.  Reweigh  at  intervals  of  twenty-four  hours  for 
fourteen  days  and  compute  the  amount  of  moisture  lost  daily  by  each. 

2.  That  capillary  action  may  be  interrupted  by  plowing  under  weeds  and  rubbish  late  in  the  season 
may  be  shown  as  follows :  Fill  two  lamp  chimneys  half  full  of  a  common  type  of  soil  and  compact 
each.  Place  a  layer  of  finely  chopped  straw  or  chaff  about  one  inch  thick  in  one  of  the  chimneys  and 
fill  it  with  soil.  Fill  the  other  one  with  the  soil,  compact  both,  and  set  them  in  shaUow  pans  of  water. 
Observe  the  rise  of  the  water  through  the  soil.   Explain  the  results. 

3.  Test  the  efficiency  of  different  kinds  of  mulches  by  filling  boxes  with  moist  soil  and  covering  the 
surface  of  each  with  a  different  kind  of  mulch.  Use  road-dust,  chopped  straw,  sand,  and  cloddy  earth. 
Cover  the  surface  to  the  same  depth  with  each  kind  of  mulch  and  weigh  the  boxes  from  day  to  day 
to  determine  the  loss  of  water.    Compare  the  results  and  explain  the  reasons  for  the  difference  shown. 

4.  If  capillary  action  is  permitted  to  bring  moisture  to  the  surface  rapidly,  the  consequent  evapora- 
tion decreases  the  soU  temperature.  The  effect  of  evaporation  upon  the  temperature  may  be  shown  as 
follows :  Cover  the  back  of  the  hand  with  cottonseed  oil  and  note  the  apparent  effect  upon  the  tem- 
perature of  the  hand.  Remove  the  oil  and  wet  the  back  of  the  hand  with  water.  Note  the  feeling.  Wipe 
dry  and  apply  alcohol.   What  is  the  effect  upon  the  apparent  temperature  ? 

5.  Compare  the  moisture  in  the  soil  under  a  board  lying  on  the  ground  with  that  of  the  uncovered 
soil  near  by,  and  explain.  Remove  the  cultivated  layer  of  soil  in  a  cornfield  or  garden  and  compare 
its  moisture  content  with  that  of  the  underlying  soil  and  explain.  Compare  the  dryness  of  a  soil 
which  has  supported  a  rank  growth  of  weeds  with  that  of  one  near  by  which  has  been  cultivated  and 
kept  clean,  and  explain  the  difference. 

Questions.  By  what  means  is  water  removed  at  the  surface  of  the  soil  ?  Explain  the  meaning  of  a 
soil  mulch.  Explain  how  the  mulch  checks  the  loss  of  water.  Why  should  soil  be  cultivated  after  a 
rain?  Which  is  the  cause  of  greater  loss  of  moisture,  surface  evaporation  or  weed  growth?  Name 
substances,  other  than  soil,  that  may  be  used  to  produce  a  mulch.  Is  the  layer  of  finely  pulverized 
soil  which  serves  as  a  mulch  dry  or  is  it  as  moist  as  the  soil  underneath,  and  why?  What  happens 
to  the  mulch  when  it  rains  enough  to  wet  the  surface  soil,  and  why?  When  a  crust  forms  on  the 
surface  what  should  be  done? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  66-67.  Ginn  and  Company.  Mosier  and 
GusTAFSON.  SoilPhysicsandManagement,  pp.  232-236.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  King,  F.  H.  Physics 
of  Agriculture,  pp.  185-189.    Mrs.  F.  H.  King.    King,  F.  H.    The  Soil,  pp.  194-202.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[40] 


EXERCISE  20  (Continued) 
SAVING  SOIL  MOISTURE  BY  MEANS  OF  A  MULCH 


Pot 
No.  1 

Pot 
No.  2 

Pot 
No.  3 

Pot 

No.  4 

Pot 
No.  5 

Poi 
No.  6 

Pot 
No.  7 

Pot 
No.  8 

Pot 
No.  9 

Weight  of  pot            

Weight  of  soil       

Weight  of  water  retained 

Per  cent  of  water  retained 

Per  cent  of  water  lost  at  time  of  mulching 

Per  cent  lost  one  day  after  mulching 

Per  cent  lost  five  days  after  mulching 

Per  cent  lost  ten  days  after  mulching 

Per  cent  lost  fifteen  days  after  mulching 

k 


[411 


EXERCISE  21 


THE  EFFECT  OF  WORKING  A  SOIL  TOO  WET 

Statement.  The  experienced  farmer  waits  until  his  soil  is  dry  enough  after  a  rain  before  he  cul- 
tivates it.  He  has  learned  that  if  he  cultivates  his  soil  while  it  is  wet,  it  will  be  very  hard  and  cloddy 
when  it  is  dry.  This  is  because  the  grains  of  a  soil  when  cultivated  too  wet  sUde  over  one  another  like 
putty  until  they  become  a  solid  mass  instead  of  sticking  together  in  small  aggregates  or  crumbs.  Such 
a  soil  is  said  to  be  puddled,  which  means  that  its  granular  structure  has  been  destroyed.  When 
a  mud  ball  can  be  made  of  the  soil  or  when  it  will  not  crumble  in  the  hand,  the  soil  is  too  wet  to  be 
worked.   The  farmer  should  know  how  to  keep  his  soil  in  fine  tilth. 

Object.  To  compare  the  effect  upon  different  types  of  soils  of  working  them  too  wet  and  to  learn 
how  the  tendency  of  soils  to  puddle  may  be  corrected. 

Materials.  Six  flowerpots  or  tin  cans ;  clay ;  loam ;  sand ;  dry,  pulverized  barnyard  manure ; 
seeds  of  wheat. 

Directions.  Fill  two  flowerpots  each  with  clay,  loam,  and  sand  respectively.  Fill  another  with  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  clay  and  finely  pulverized  barnyard  manure.   Saturate  soils  in  each  with  water 

and  stir  thoroughly  one  pot 
of  each  kind  of  soil.  Leave 
the  others  unstirred.  Al- 
low the  soils  to  dry,  and 
plant  ten  kernels  of  wheat 
or  five  of  com  in  each. 
Water  as  often  as  is  nec- 
essary and  observe  the 
growth  of  the  plants  in 
each  soil.  Record  the  re- 
sults and  explain  the  rea- 
sons for  the  differences. 
Examine  each   soil   under 


Fig.  25.  Showing  the  effect  on  the  structure  of  soil  of  working  it  too  wet  as  compared  with 
working  it  when  it  was  in  the  proper  degree  of  dryness 


the  microscope  for  tilth,  granular  structure,  soil  aggregates,  etc.,  according  to  method  described  in 
exercise  14.  Make  a  mud  ball  of  each  soil  under  experiment  and  allow  them  to  dry.  Test  them 
for  hardness,  and  examine  their  structure.  Also  make  mud  balls  of  some  of  the  tj^e  surface  soils 
and  subsoils  of  the  neighborhood,  including  some  from  cultivated  and  sod  lands,  and  compare  them 
as  above  indicated.     What  lessons  in  soil  handling  do  these  results  teach? 

Questions.  Which  type  of  soil  puddles  the  most  easily  and  completely  ?  Which  soil  shows  the  best 
tilth?  Which  the  poorest?  Give  reasons  for  your  findings.  Which  soil  may  be  plowed  with  the  least 
amount  of  harm  while  wet  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  the  presence  of  organic  matter  on  the  readiness  with 
which  a  soil  will  puddle  ?  What  is  the  effect  on  soil  structure  of  grazing  winter  wheat  with  cattle  when 
the  soil  is  wet  ?  Does  it  injure  the  soil  structure  to  drive  a  team  and  wagon  over  it  while  the  soil  is  j 
wet  ?  Ask  the  farmers  of  the  community  whether  sod  land  may  be  plowed  and  worked  when  wet 
with  less  injury  than  can  stubble  land,  and  why.  Ascertain  if  land  is  injured  as  much  by  being  puddled 
in  the  fall  as  in  the  spring,  and  why.  Ascertain  if  the  injury  is  as  great  from  cultivating  soil  too  wet  if 
the  weather  continues  wet  as  if  it  becomes  dry,  and  give  reasons. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  62.  Ginn  and  Company.  King,  F.  H.  Physics 
of  Agriculture,  pp.  231-234.  Mrs.  F.  H.  King.  Mosier  and  Gustafson.  Soil  Physics  and  Management, 
pp.  136-138.  j.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Roberts,  I.  P.  The  Fertility  of  the  Land,  p.  90.  The  Macmillan 
Company. 

[  42  ] 


[ 


EXERCISE   22 

SOIL  DRAINAGE 

Statement.  A  soil  with  its  pore  spaces  filled  with  water  is  known  as  a  dead  soil.  Surplus  water  may 
be  disposed  of  in  part  by  surface  drainage  if  there  is  sufficient  slope,  but  in  such  cases  surface  erosion 
or  washing  lisually  results.  Underdraitiing,  by  means  of  tiles,  lowers  the  water  table,  checks  surface 
washing,  and  otherwise  improves  the  soil. 

Object.  To  show  that  drainage  does  not  deplete  usable  soil  moisture,  but  that  it  conserves  such 
moisture  by  establishing  a  lower  water  table  and  facilitating  percolation. 

Materials.  Two  12-inch  flowerpots;  wooden  box,  tightly  constructed  and  12  inches  deep;  any 
common  type  of  soil ;  i-inch  bit  and  brace ;  three  round  wooden  rods  i  inch  in  diameter,  such  as  broom 
handles;  a  sprinkling  can. 

Directions,  i.  Close  the  hole  in  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  12-inch  flowerpots  with  a  cork ;  fill  both 
pots  with  loam.   Plant  kernels  of  corn  in  each  pot,  and  water  both  alike.   Observe  differences  in  growth 

and  explain  the  reason  for  any  variation  that  appears. 

2.  Bore  holes  in  one  end  of  the  box  3  inches,  6  inches,  and  9 
inches,  respectively,  from  the  top  and  equal  distances  from  the  sides. 
On  the  opposite  end  bore  three  holes  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
top  and  sides.  Place  the  three  rods  through  the  box,  leaving  one 
end  of  each  to  protrude  beyond  the  hole,  as  shown  in.  Fig.  26.  Fill 
the  box  with  soil,  tamping  it  firmly  to  represent  the  natural  field  soil. 
When  fuU  and  leveled,  turn  the  box  on  end  and  carefully  pull  out 
the  rods.   If  the  soil  is  tamped  thoroughly  and  the  rods  are  removed 

Fig.  26    A  simple  device  for  illustrating     carefully,  the  openings  will  remain.   Pour  coarse  sand  or  gravel  into 
the  principles  of  soil  drainage  j  7  r  o  o  ^ 

the  holes  until  they  are  each  filled,  and  turn  the  box  back  to  its 

proper  position.  Sprinkle  the  surface  of  the  soil  very  slowly,  so  that  all  the  water  will  be  absorbed  as 
rapidly  as  applied,  until  water  begins  to  nm  in  a  stream  from  one  of  the  holes  in  the  box.  From  which 
holes  does  water  flow  first,  the  top  ones  or  the  bottom  ones  ?  Plug  the  holes  from  which  water  is  flow- 
ing and  continue  to  sprinkle  until  water  runs  from  the  second  hole.  Explain  what  happens,  and  why. 
Repeat  until  the  water  runs  from  the  top  hole.  Stop  this  hole  also  and  water  the  soil  until  it  is 
saturated.  Then  open  the  holes  in  their  order,  beginning  at  the  upper  one,  and  note  the  lowering 
of  the  water  table  in  the  box.  Apply  what  you  have  observed  to  the  soil  in  the  field. 
Plan  a  system  of  xmder drainage, 

1.  To  improve  some  field  in  the  neighborhood.  ' 

2.  To  reclaim  a  piece  of  wet  land  in  the  neighborhood. 

3.  To  stop  surface  washing  on  a  farm  in  the  community. 

In  each  case  show  location  of  drains,  the  size  of  tile  required  for  each,  the  slope  of  each,  and  make  an 
itemized  statement  of  the  cost  of  the  improvements  and  of  the  value  of  the  benefits  which  would 
result. 

Questions.  Explain  in  what  respects  a  soil  filled  with  water  differs  from  one  which  is  only  moist. 
Why  will  not  the  common  cultivated  plants  grow  in  one  as  well  as  the  other  ?  May  the  lack  of  suit- 
able drainage  of  a  soil  be  detected  by  the  kinds  of  plants  found  growing  on  it  ?  Name  a  half  dozen 
plants  the  presence  of  which  indicate  poor  drainage.  A  half  dozen  which  indicate  good  drainage. 
How  may  soil  erosion  be  prevented  on  gentle  slopes  ?  How  may  water  that  comes  to  the  surface  at 
the  foot  of  the  slopes  be  prevented  from  passing  over  the  low  level  ground  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  122-134.  Ginn  and  Company.  King,  F.  H. 
Physics  of  Agriculture,  pp.  292-329.  Mrs.  F.  H.  King.  Buekett,  C.  W.  Soils,  pp.  161-164.  Orange  Judd 
Company.   Mosier  and  Gustafson.   Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  222-229.    J-  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

[441 


I 


EXERCISE   23 


SOIL  WASTE  THROUGH  EROSION 

Statement.  The  greatest  waste  of  soil  fertility  is  the  waste  of  the  soil  itself.  It  is  the  best  portion 
of  the  soil  which  is  carried  away  by  running  water  and  by  wind. 

Object.  To  ascertain  the  conditions  under  which  soil  erosion  occurs  and  the  most  practicable 
means  of  checking  it. 

Materials.  Gallon  of  loam;  two  4-to-8-gallon  vessels;  one  half -gallon  vessel;  one  2-gallon  vessel; 
two  glass  tumblers. 

Directions,  i.  As  shown  in  Fig.  27,  place  a  large  vessel  on  a  table  and  fill  it  with  water  to  which 
one-half  gallon  of  loam  has  been  added.  At  B  place  the  half-gallon  vessel,  at  C  the  2-gallon  vessel, 

and  at  D  the  other  large  vessel.  Connect  each  by  one- 
fourth-inch  rubber  tubing  as  shown,  letting  the  end  of 
the  tubing  extend  one  inch  below  the  top  edge  of  the 
vessel  in  each  case,  except  at  A.  Here  the  tube  should 
extend  almost  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 

Start  the  water  running  between  A  and  B.  As  soon  as 
B  is  full,  start  it  between  B  and  C,  and  likewise  when  C 
is  filled,  start  it  running  between  C  and  D.  While  all  are 
nmning,  stir  the  water  in  A  continually.  When  most  of 
the  water  has  been  transferred  into  the  other  vessels,  note 
the  comparative  muddiness  of  the  water  in  each.  Examine 
at  intervals  of  an  hour  and  note  which  vessel  of  water 
becomes  clear  first.  Note  which  contains  the  most  sedi- 
ment after  it  becomes  clear.  A  represents  the  soil,  B  the 
swiftly-running  surface  stream,  C  the  slower  river,  and  D 
the  lake  or  ocean.  Which  isr  the  more  valuable,  the  sediment  carried  to  D  or  that  deposited  at  5  ? 

2.  Embed  a  tumbler  in  shallow,  swiftly- 
running,  muddy  water  so  that  the  top  of 
the  tumbler  is  one-half  inch  above  the  bed 
of  the  stream.  In  the  same  manner  place 
a  tumbler  in  slowly-moving  water.  Leave 
them  a  day  and  then  remove  and  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  sediment  in  each  and 
whether  it  is  sand,  silt,  or  clay. 

3.  Visit  local  areas  of  badly- washed  soils 
and  plan  ways  to  stop  the  erosion.  Tell  how 
erosion  might  be  prevented  by  terracing, 
by  planting  crops  such  as  pasture  crops,  by 
properly-arranged  dams,  and  by  drainage. 

Questions.  Which  tvmibler  embedded  in  the  stream  contained  the  most  sediment  ?  In  which  was 
the  sediment  the  coarser?  Explain  the  reason.  Apply  this  principle  to  checking  surface  erosion  on 
the  fields.   What  is  the  source  of  the  soil  on  bottom  lands  ? 


Fig.  27. 


Method  of  illustrating  effect  of  rate  of  flow 
of  water  upon  soil  erosion 


»'%T:m.;  <  --'^^f-^^mjg^gm^SSOSBlhj^jt 

/P 

9Bi^ 

Fig.  28.   A  good  example  of  the  waste  of  the  soil  through 
surface  erosion 


References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  84-85.  Ginn  and  Company.  King,  F.  H. 
The  Soil,  pp.  50-61.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hilgard,  E.  W.  Soils,  pp.  218-2I9.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany.  Hosier  and  Gustafson.  Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  358-375.   J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

[46] 


I 


EXERCISE  24 


THE  POWER  OF  SOILS  TO  TAKE  UP  PLANT  FOOD  FROM  SOLUTION 

Statement.  A  fanner  frequently  applies  barnyard  manure  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  winter,  and 
at  other  times  when  it  is  not  convenient  to  turn  the  manure  under  immediately.  The  soluble  portion 
of  the  manure  is  carried  down  into  the  soil  by  the  rain  as  it  percolates  through  the  soil. 

Object.  To  learn  whether  the  plant  food  is  carried  through  the  soil  and  lost  in  the  drainage 
water  or  whether  it  is  taken  up  by  the  soil  and  held  there  until  the  plants  can  use  it.  To  determine 
whether  all  soils  have  equal  power  of  absorbing  plant  food  and  whether  they  all  give  it  up  equally 

fully  and  generously.  To  determine  whether 
the  presence  of  organic  matter  in  a  soil 
affects  its  power  to  absorb  soluble  plant 
food. 

Materials.  Four  lamp  chimneys ;  four 
glass  tumblers  ;  sand  ;  loam  ;  clay ;  dry,  finely 
pulverized  barnyard  manure  ;  cheesecloth ; 
string. 

Directions.  Cover  the  bottoms  of  the 
lamp  chimneys  with  cheesecloth  and  fill  one 
a  fourth  full  of  clay,  another  a  fourth  full  of 
loam,  and  another  a  fourth  full  of  sand.  Fill 
the  fourth  lamp  chimney  one-fourth  full 
of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sand  and 
finely  pulverized  manure.  Place  the  lamp 
chimneys  in  the  percolation  rack  (Fig.  27) 
and  place  tumblers  under  each.  Prepare 
a  solution  to  pour  over  the  soil  in  each  as  follows:  Fill  a  gallon  vessel  one-fourth  full  of  dry, 
finely  pulverized  barnyard  manure.  Fill  the  vessel  three-fourths  full  of  water  and  stir  until  the  soluble 
part  ctf  the  manure  has  colored  the  water.  Let  the  organic  matter  settle,  pour  off  the  water,  and 
use  it  to  water  the  soil  in  the  lamp  chimneys.  Observe  the  color  of  the  water  which  percolates  through 
the  various  types  of  soils.  Record  the  amount  of  manure  water  which  will  be  clarified  by  each 
soil  before  the  drainage  water  begins  to  show  color  and  explain  the  practical  significance  of  this 
difference. 

Questions.  What  was  the  color  of  the  first  water  that  percolated  through  each  type  of  soil  ?  Which 
soil  showed  percolation  water  when  the  least  amount  of  water  had  passed  through  it?  Which  soil 
retained  the  most  coloring  matter?  What  was  the  effect  of  adding  organic  matter  to  sand  on  the  amount 
of  coloring  matter  retained  ?  Discuss  the  value  in  this  respect  of  applying  all  organic  matter  possible  to 
the  soil.  Which  soil  —  clay,  loam,  or  sand  —  is  most  retentive  of  plant  food  when  a  manure  or  fertilizer 
is  applied,  and  why?  As  between  a  soil  which  admits  water  readily  and  one  which  admits  water  slowly, 
what  difference  would  there  be  in  the  application  of  barnyard  manure  in  winter  ?  As  between  a  sloping 
surface  and  one  which  is  only  slightly  rolling?  As  between  a  time  when  the  ground  is  covered  with 
ice  or  is  frozen  and  when  it  is  not  ?  Prepare  a  statement  giving  your  views  as  to  the  proper  time  and 
method  of  applying  manure.  Compare  the  merits  of  hauling  it  out  frequently,  and  composting  and 
applying  just  before  planting. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  72-73,  75.  Ginn  and  Company.  Mosier  and 
GusTAFSON.  Soil  Physics  and  Management,  pp.  163-168.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin,  Buck- 
man.   Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management,  pp.  349-373.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[48] 


Fig.  29.     Percolation  rack 


t 


EXERCISE   25 


THE  ACroiTY  OF  SOILS 

Statement.  In  humid  regions  there  is  likely  to  be  a  loss  of  basic,  or  alkaline,  materials  in  soils  that 
have  been  long  imder  cultivation,  and  an  accumulation  of  acids  due  to  the  decay  of  humus  and  the 
excretion  of  acids  by  the  roots  of  growing  plants.  As  a  consequence,  such  soils  may  become  sour,  or 
acid.  Many  plants  are  directly  affected  in  their  ability  to  grow  by  the  acid  or  the  alkaline  content  of 
the  soil.  Among  the  important  plants  which  are  more  or  less  sensitive  to  acid,  and  consequently  thrive 
best  on  alkaline  or  neutral  soils,  are  alfalfa,  red  clover,  Kentucky  bluegrass,  tobacco,  barley,  wheat,  and 

oats.  Some  of  the  plants  which  pre- 
fer a  sUghtly  acid  soil  are  rye,  redtop, 
millet,  and  carrots. 

Object.  To  test  the  acidity  of 
soils  of  the  neighborhood  and  to 
study  the  methods  of  correcting  this 
condition. 

Materials.  Samples  of  surface 
soil  chosen  from  different  soil  types 
of  the  neighborhood  and  of  subsoil ; 
two  tumblers ;  an  evaporating  dish ; 
red  and  blue  litmus  papers ;  blotting 
paper;  distilled  water  or  clear  rain 
water;  ammonia;  hydrochloric  acid. 

Directions.  Collect  samples  of 
surface  soil  and  subsoil.  Secure  the 
surface  samples  at  a  depth  of  seven 
inches,  and  the  subsoil  samples  at 
a  depth  of  about  fourteen  inches. 
I.  Cut  a  piece  of  filter  paper  to 
fit  the  bottom  of  the  glass  tumbler. 

Place  in  the  bottom  of  the  timabler  a  piece  of  red  and  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper,  and  over  them 

place  the  disk  of  filter  paper.     Place  soil  to  be  tested  in  the  tumbler  and  cover  with  distilled  water. 

Observe  any  changes  that  may  take  place  in  the  color  of  the  htmus  papers  and  record  results  at  the 

end  of  thirty  minutes. 

2.  Fill  two  tumblers  three-quarters  full  of  distilled  or  rain  water.  To  the  first  add  a  few  drops  of 
ammonia.  Then  into  each  tiunbler  stir  for  three  minutes  a  tablespoonful  of  the  soil  to  be  tested,  being 
careful  to  use  two  spoons  and  to  keep  each  in  its  respective  glass.  At  the  end  of  two  hours  examine 
the  contents  of  each  glass.  If  the  soils  need  lime,  the  water  standing  above  the  soil  in  the  glass  in 
which  the  ammonia  has  been  added  will  have  a  dark,  reddish-brown,  or  black  appearance,  while  the 
water  in  the  other  glass  will  be  very  nearly  clear.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  soil  is  well  stocked  with 
carbonates  of  lime  or  magnesia,  the  soil  water  in  both  glasses  will  be  entirely  clear. 

3.  Make  a  mud  ball,  mold  it  cup-shaped,  and  pour  several  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  on  it. 
If  bubbles  escape,  it  is  a  sign  that  there  is  an  abvmdance  of  carbonates.  If  there  is  no  effervescence, 
the  soil  lacks  carbonates  and  is  probably  acid. 

Questions.  What  are  some  of  the  conditions  which  cause  a  soil  to  become  sour?  What  are  the  best 
ways  to  correct  acidity  in  a  soil?  What  effect  does  acidity  have  upon  plant  growth?  The  presence 
of  what  plants  indicates  an  acid  soil  ?  What  an  alkaline  soil  ?  What  does  ground  limestone  cost  a  ton  in 

[SO] 


Fig.  30.   Clover  on  an  alkaline  and  an  acid  soil. 

The  growth  of  clover  on  an  alkaline  soil  is  represented  by  the  pile  of  hay  on  the  left.    That 

produced  on  an  equal  area  of  acid  soil  is  contained  in  the  straw  hat  on  the  right.     (Rhode 

Island  Experiment  Station.) 


EXERCISE  25  (Continued) 

your  community  ?  What  does  lime  do  in  addition  to  correcting  acidity  ?  How  much  ground  limestone  is 
usually  applied  to  the  acre  ?  How  much  air-slaked  lime  ?  Name  the  principal  crops  of  the  neighborhood 
which  are  most  sensitive  to  acid  in  the  soil.  Do  your  tests  indicate  that  the  soils  of  the  neighborhood 
are  acid  ?  Is  lime  used  locally  as  a  soil  corrective  ?  In  which  form  is  it  generally  used,  as  ground  lime- 
stone or  as  slaked  lime  ?   Explain  the  difference  in  the  preparation,  composition,  cost  and  proper  use. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  63.  Ginn  and  Company.  Burkett,  C.  W. 
Soils,  p.  104.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin,  Buckman.  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management, 
pp.  375-391.   The  Macmillan  Company.   Bulletin  yj,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


[51] 


EXERCISE  26 

PLANT  FOOD   REMOVED  BY  CROPS 

Statement.  The  rate  at  which  a  fanner  exhausts  his  soil  will  depend  in  large  part  upon  what  he 
takes  off  the  soil  and  what  he  returns.  The  wise  farmer  keeps  books  with  the  fertility  in  his  soil  just 
as  he  does  with  the  naoney  he  has  in  the  bank. 

Materials.   Pencil ;  paper ;  tables  in  Appendix. 

Directions.  Assume  that  the  element  nitrogen  is  worth  20  cents  a  pound,  phosphorus  8  cents  a 
poimd,  and  potassium  8  cents  a  pound. 

I.  If  an  acre  of  com  yields  30  bushels,  assuming  that  it  is  removed  from  the  farm,  compute  the 
amoimt  and  value  of  the  plant  food  removed.  How  does  the  value  of  the  plant  food  removed  by  the 
grain  and  the  value  of  the  grain  itself  compare  at  the  present  market  price  ?   Compute  and  record  in  a 


Fig.  31.   In  which  form  should  the  fann  products  be  sold? 

a,  in  a  load  of  50  busbeb  of  wheat  sold  from  the  farm  how  much  plant  food  is  removed  and  what  is  it  worth  as  compared  with  the  wheat  ?  t,  in 
a  load  of  6  fat  hogs  weighing  250  pounds  each  how  much  plant  food  is  removed  and  what  is  its  value  compared  with  that  of  the  hogs  at 
present  market  prices  ?  c,  in  a  load  of  cream  of  1 500  pounds,  how  much  plant  food  is  there  and  what  is  it  worth  compared  with  the  cream, 

assuming  the  cream  to  contain  38  per  cent  butter  fat  ? 

table  on  the  following  page  the  amount  and  value  of  plant  food  removed  from  an  acre  by  each  of  the 
following  crops :  wheat,  i6  bushels;  oats,  26  bushels;  red  clover,  i  ton;  timothy,  i  ton;  alfalfa,  3 
tons ;  apples,  70  bushels.  Compute  the  market  value  of  each  of  these  crops  and  compare  it  with  the 
value  of  the  plant  food  removed  from  the  soil. 

2.  A  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  removes  $11.45  worth  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassiima.  A  ton  of 
hogs  remove  $7.71  worth,  and  a  ton  of  cream  removes  $1.85  worth  of  these  materials.  Is  the  plant 
food  contained  in  these  products  counted  when  the  buyer  fixes  the  price  which  the  farmer  is  to  receive 
for  them,  or  does  the  farmer  sell  his  products  and  "  throw  in  "  the  plant  food  ?  What  does  the  farmer 
receive  for  a  ton  of  each  of  the  products  named  at  present  market  prices  ? 

3.  American  farmers  produce  about  3,ooo,ooo,cxx)  bushels  of  corn,  700,000,000  bushels  of  wheat, 
1,000,000,000  bushels  of  oats  a  year.  Compute  the  value  of  the  plant  foods  taken  from  the  soil  each 
year  by  each  of  these  crops.  Considering  only  these  three  crops,  compare  the  value  of  the  mining 
operations  of  the  farmers  in  value  of  mineral  removed  with  that  of  the  gold  mined,  the  silver 
mined,  and  the  coal  mined  in  the  United  States  in  a  year. 

Questions.  What  is  the  most  exhaustive  crop  grown  in  your  community  considered  alone  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  plant  food  taken  from  the  soil  ?  The  least  exhaustive  crop  ?  What  types  of 
farming  are  most  exhaustive  of  soil  fertility?  What  types  are  least  exhaustive?  Make  a  plan  of 
farming  which  you  think  would  be  profitable  and  maintain  the  land. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  83-84.  Ginn  and  Company.  Burkett,  C.  W. 
Soils,  pp.  266-274.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Roberts,  I.  P.  The  Fertility  of  the  Soil,  pp.  20-29.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company.  Lyon,  Fippin,  Buckman.  Soils,  their  Properties  and  Management,  p.  418.  The  Macmillan 
Company. 


[52] 


EXERCISE  26  (Continued) 
AMOUNT  AND  VALUE  OF  THE   PLANT  FOOD   REMOVED   PER  ACRE  BY  DIFFERENT   CROPS 


Ckop 

Yield  per 
Acre 

Nitrogen 

REMOVED 

(pounds) 

Phosphorus 

REMOVED 

(pounds) 

Potassium 

REMOVED 

(pounds) 

Value  of 
Plant  Food 

Value  of 
Crop 

Difference 
IN  Value 

• 

fS3: 


EXERCISE  27 

DETERMINING  DEFICIENCIES  OF  A  WORN   SOIL 

Statement.  Any  cultivated  soil  not  fertilized  naturally  by  such  means  as  frequent  overflows  will 
eventually  need  to  be  fertilized  artificially,  as  by  the  use  of  green  manure,  barnyard  manure,  or  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  In  some  soils  one  element  of  plant  food  will  become  depleted  first  and  another  ele- 
ment first  in  another  soil.  In  some  soils  depletion  already  has  been  carried  so  far  that  two  or  more 
elements  must  be  applied  for  successful  crop  growth.  To  apply  to  a  soil  only  the  elements  which 
growing  crops  need  is  scientific  practice.  To  apply  the  wrong  elements  or  elements  in  addition  to  those 
needed  is  waste. 

Object.   To  determine  the  plant  needs  of  worn  soils  of  the  neighborhood. 

Materials.  Infertile  soil ;  dry,  finely  pulverized  barnyard  manure;  steamed  bone  meal;  sodiimi 
nitrate ;  wood  ashes ;  nine  flowerpots  of  tin  cans ;  labels ;  seeds  of  wheat. 

Directions.   Laboratory  test.    Number  the  flowerpots  and  fill  each  with  an  infertile  soil  from  the 

neighborhood.   Treat  them  as  follows: 

Pot  No.  I  is  to  be  left  untreated  as  a  check  with  which  the  others  are  compared.  Pot  No.  2  is  to  receive 
10  grams  of  nitrate  of  soda;  No.  3,  10  grams  of  dry,  pulverized  barnyard  manure;  No.  4,  10  grams  of 
steamed  bone  meal ;  No.  5,  10  grams  of  unleached  wood  ashes ;  No.  6,  10  grams  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  10 
grams  of  steamed  bone  meal;  No.  7,  10  grams  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  10  grams  of  wood  ashes;  No.  9,  10 
grams  of  nitrate  of  soda,  10  grams  of  steamed  bone  meal,  and  10  grams  of  wood  ashes. 

Plant  six  wheat  grains  in  each  pot  and  place  the  pots  where  plant  growth  can  take  place  to  the  best 
advantage.  Be  sure  that  all  pots  have  equal  advantages.  Water  each  pot  with  clean  rain  water.  At  the 
end  of  six  weeks  compare  the  plants  as  to  color,  vigor,  size,  etc.  Continue  the  test  untU  the  plants  in 
some  of  the  pots  cease  to  grow.  Carefully  remove  the  plants  from  each  pot,  wash  the  soil  from  the 
roots,  and  compare  the  size  of  an  average  plant  from  each  pot.  Compare  the  root,  stem,  and  leaf 
development  of  each.  Under  which  system  of  fertilization  was  the  greatest  growth  produced?  Weigh 
the  green  plants  produced  in  each  pot.  Place  them  in  a  labeled  envelope,  allow  them  to  become  Jair 
dry,  and  weigh.   Record  and  discuss  results.  Apply  the  lesson  to  the  farm  practice  of  the  community- 

Questions.  Under  which  system  of  fertilization  did  the  plants  have  the  best  color  and  attain  the 
greatest  size?  To  what  do  you  attribute  this  result?  What  did  barnyard  manure  supply  that  was 
lacking  in  the  other  fertilizers  used?  What  manures  and  fertilizers  are  most  generally  used  in  your 
neighborhood  ?  What  amounts  are  usually  appHed  to  the  acre  and  to  what  crops  ?  Is  all  the  barn- 
yard manure  made  in  your  locaUty  preserved  and  applied  ?  To  what  crops  is  it  usually  applied  and 
at  what  rate  per  acre?  How  is  it  applied,  with  a  hand  fork  or  a  manure  spreader?  Which  method 
should  be  used  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  79-84.  Ginn  and  Company.  Warren,  G.  F. 
Farm  Management,  pp.  183-203.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Parker,  E.  C.  Field  Management  and  Crop 
Rotation,  pp.  269-280,  290-305.  Webb  Publishing  Company.  Mosier  and  Gustafsgn.  Soil  Physics  and 
Management,  pp.  389-407.   J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


[54] 


EXERCISE  27  (ConHnued) 
RECORD   OF   RESULTS  OF   POT  EXPERIMENTS 


Pot  Numbf.r 

Treatment 

Date  of 
Planting 

Appearance 
OF  Plants 

AT    FIRST 

Appearance 

AFTER  Two 

Months 

Appearance 

after  Four 

Months 

Weight  of 
Plants 

Gain  over 
Plants  in 
Pot  No.  i 

Remarks 

[SS] 


EXERCISE   28 

JUDGING  SOILS 

Statement.  A  soil  is  judged  on  the  basis  of  its  capacity  to  produce  crops  for  a  long  time  and  accord- 
ing to  the  kind  of  crops  to  which  it  is  adapted.  A  farm  is  judged  by  its  location  (with  respect  to  market, 
church,  and  school),  its  improvements,  the  kind  of  people  living  in  the  community,  and  the  character 
of  the  roads,  as  well  as  by  the  quality  of  the  soil. 

Object.   To  judge  the  soil  of  the  neighborhood  as  a  producing  unit. 

Materials.   Soil ;  score  card ;  pencil. 

Directions.  Make  a  study  of  certain  tj^es  of  soils  of  the  neighborhood  as  producing  unit's,  evaluating 
each  on  the  basis  of  the  points  given  on  the  score  card.  The  student  should  be  required  to  apply 
all  the  soil  knowledge  he  has  thus  far  obtained  in  performing  this  task. 

In  judging  a  soil  note  carefully  the  kind  of  rocks  from  which  it  is  derived  and  learn  the  bearing  of  the 
origin  of  a  soil  upon  its  value.  The  depth  of  the  soil  and  the  depth  and  nature  of  the  subsoil  are  of 
much  importance  and  should  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  banks  of  gullies,  roadway  cuts  and  the 
like.  One  of  the  surest  indexes  of  the  present  productiveness  of  a  soil  is  the  character  of  the  forest, 
weed  and  crop  growth,  but  this  is  not  necessarily  a  safe  guide  to  a  knowledge  of  the  wearing  qualities 
of  land.  The  degree  to  which  a  soil  is  eroded  or  will  be  eroded  when  cultivated  should  be  considered. 
Proper  drainage  and  the  probabilities  of  injury  from  overflow  should  be  considered.  Note  also  the 
degree  to  which  the  land  has  been  worn  by  continuous  cropping  and  tillage,  and  in  making  an  estimate 
of  its  value  make  due  allowance  for  the  time  and  money  required  to  build  the  land  up  again.  Take  as 
a  standard  a  soil  that  is  well  drained,  free  from  overflow,  deep,  friable.  A  soil  which  will  not  wash, 
and  which  will  produce  a  fair  crop  in  wet  and  in  dry  seasons  and  a  maximum  crop  in  a  favorable  season. 
Such  a  soil  should  be  adapted  to  a  variety  of  the  leading  crops  of  the  community. 

Compare  the  student's  estimate  with  the  production  of  each  type  of  soil  in  so  far  as  it  can  be 
ascertained  or  approximated.   Repeat  this  work  until  the  student  has  acquired  soil  judgment. 

Questions.  What  was  the  original  growth  of  forests  and  other  plants  on  the  best  soils  of  the  neigh- 
borhood ?  What  on  the  poorest  soils  ?  What  is  the  difference  in  the  present  weed  and  shrub  growth 
in  these  three  grades  of  soil?  Which  soils  have  the  largest  proportion  of  legumes?  Which  the 
largest  proportion  of  plants  common  to  sour  soils,  as  sorrels  and  docks  ?  What  is  the  diiTerence  in 
the  color  of  different  soils  of  the  community,  and  what  relation  do  you  find  between  certain  soil  colors 
and  productiveness  ?  What  relation  do  you  find  between  color  and  adaptation  to  special  crops,  such  as 
fruit  trees,  and  why  ?  What  textures  of  soil  and  subsoil  do  you  regard  as  indicative  of  good  orchard  land  ? 
What  is  the  depth  and  the  color  of  the  subsoil  of  each  type  of  soil  found  in  the  neighborhood  ?  To  what 
extent  has  each  been  eroded  or  surface  washed  ?  How  does  the  slope  or  topography  affect  the  value  of 
land  ?  How  does  topography  affect  the  degree  of  surface  erosion  ?  Does  the  exposure  or  direction  of 
the  slope  affect  the  quality  and  value  of  the  soil?  On  which  slope  —  the  north,  the  east,  the  west,  or 
the  south  —  do  you  find  the  deepest  layer  of  soil  and  the  largest  plant  growth  ?  Give  reasons  for  what 
you  find  in  answer  to  these  questions.   Which  slope  would  you  prefer  as  a  site  for  an  orchard?  Why? 

If  you  were  purchasing  a  farm,  describe  fully  how  you  would  determine  its  value  and  on  what  facts 
you  would  base  your  judgment.  Make  a  map  of  the  soils  of  a  district  based  upon  their  adaptability  to 
the  staple  crops  of  the  community. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  62-63.  Ginn  and  Company.  Warren,  G.  F. 
Farm  Management,  pp.  517-535.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hunt,  T.  F.  How  to  Choose  a  Farm,  pp.  36-55. 
The  Macmillan  Company. 


I 


56' 


EXERCISE  28  (Continued) 
THE  SOIL  AS  A  PRODUCING  UNIT    (SCORE  CARD) 


, 

Possible 
Score 

Field  No.  1 

Field  No.  2 

Field  No.  3 

Field  No.  4 

Field  No.  S 

Fertility 

Color 

Texture 

• 

Structure  

Depth  of  soil 

Character  and  depth  of  subsoil     . 

Character   and  nature  of  forest, 

weed  and  crop  growth     .     .     . 

Total 

5 
5 
S 

lO 
lO 

S 

40 

Topography 

Influence  upon  yield 

Influence  upon  ease  of  cultivation 

Influence  upon  erosion    .... 

Influence  upon  drainage .... 

Total 

10 

5 
10 
10 

35 

Physical  condition 
Ease  of  cultivation     .    .    .    '.     . 
Retention  of  fertility  and  moisture 
Adaptability  to  staple  crops  of  the 

community 

Total 

5 

5 

^ 

25 

Total 

100 

[57] 


EXERCISE   29 

THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  SOIL 

Statement.  If  fields  of  the  same  size  produced  at  the  same  rate  regardless  of  their  topography, 
fertility,  structure,  and  methods  of  manipulation,  the  study  of  these  factors  by  the  student  would  be 
unnecessary. 

Object.  To  study  the  differences  in  the  productiveness  of  different  farms"  and  fields  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  the  reasons  for  these  differences. 

Materials.  Three  or  four  fields  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  which  during  the  past  season  were 
planted  to  the  same  kind  of  crop,  such  as  three  or  four  corn  fields,  orchards,  wheat  fields,  cotton  fields, 
or  alfalfa  fields.    • 

Directions,  i .  Determine  the  size  of  the  fields  selected,  either  by  actual  measurement  or  by  con- 
sultation with  the  owners,  and  by  similar  consultation  find  what  was  the  total  yield  (bushels,  pounds, 
or  tons)  from  the  year's  crop  on  each  field.  Enter  these  facts  in  the  blank  on  opposite  page.  A  second 
blank  is  provided  for  use  in  case  estimates  are  made  of  two  kinds  of  crops. 

(2)  In  a  similar  manner  whenever  possible  learn  the  history  of  the  management  of  the  soil  of  two 
or  more  farms  in  the  neighborhood  in  which  the  management  has  been  strikingly  different.  Observe 
the  cumulative  effect  upon  the  productiveness  of  the  land  of  a  judicious  system  of  rotating  the  crops 

.and  the  regular  use  of  manure  or  fertilizer  in  comparison  with  that  of  growing  tilled  crops  continuously 
without  fertilization. 

(3)  Study  in  detail  the  methods  of  soil  management  of  two  or  three  of  the  best  farmers  of  the 
neighborhood.  Ascertain  if  theirs  was  the  best  land  in  the  commimity  when  they  began  to  cultivate  it. 
Note  whether  it  has  been  improved  under  their  management  at  the  same  time  that  they  have  produced 
the  largest  local  crop  yields.  Study  their  system  of  crop  rotation.  To  what  crops  do  they  apply  manure 
or  fertilizer  and  how  much  to  each  acre?  Write  an  account  of  how  their  system  of  soil  management 
differs  from  that  of  their  neighbors. 

Questions.  What  is  the  variation  in  acre  yield  in  your  conmiunity  as  shown  by  your  investigation  ? 
Can  you  accoimt  for  the  difference  in  the  yield  by  any  difference  in  the  nature  of  the  soil  ?  by  the  crop 
which  preceded  the  one  studied  ?  by  the  amount  and  character  of  the  manure  or  fertilizer  applied  ? 
by  the  method  of  preparing  the  ground  for  the  crop  ?  by  different  kinds  of  corn,  cotton,  wheat,  alfalfa, 
that  were  grown  ?  by  the  farming  methods  used  in  growing  the  crop  ?  by  the  time  and  methods  used 
in  harvesting  the  crop  ?  How  much  more  would  it  have  been  worth  to  the  farmer  who  got  the  smallest 
acre  yield  if  his  field  had  produced  the  same  acre  yield  as  that  of  the  most  productive  field  ?  Suggest 
ways  that  are  practicable  whereby  the  smaller  yield  might  be  substantially  increased.  Are  the  larger 
yields  as  great  as  it  is  feasible  to  secure  ?  How  might  they  be  increased  with  profit  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  82-90.  Ginn  and  Company.  Warren,  G.  F. 
Farm  Management,  pp.  183-203.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hopkins,  C.  G.  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent 
Agriculture,  pp.  556-562.  Ginn  and  Company.  Parker,  E.  C.  Field  Management  and  Crop  Rotation, 
pp.  50-62.   Webb  Publishing  Company. 


[58] 


EXERCISE  29  (Continued) 
COMPARATIVE    CROP   YIELDS   IN   DIFFERENT    FIELDS 


Kind  of  Crop 

Field  Number 

Location 

Size  of  Field  in 
Acres 

Total  Crop 
Yield 

Yield  per  Acre 

\S9\ 


PART    III.     FIELD   AND    ORCHARD   CROPS 


-  tassel 


-leaves 


internodes 


EXERCISE  30 

THE   CORN  PLANT 

Statement.  Our  interest  in  farm  operations  is  greatly  quickened  if  we  understand  fully  the  life 
habits  of  the  plants  and  animals  which  we  are  raising.  Besides,  such  knowledge  pcwnts  the  way  to 
the  most  successful  farm  practice.   Corn  is  the  most  important  crop  in  American  agriculture,  and  this 

plant  is  more  dependent  upon  man's  care  than  any  other  of  the 
great  cereals.  Therefore  a  detailed  knowledge  of  the  corn  plant  is 
of  the  highest  importance. 

Object.  To  learn  how  the  com  plant  grows,  its  structure,  and 
the  relationship  of  its  parts. 

Materials.  Microscope ;  grains  of  com  which  have  been  soaked 
in  water  for  twenty-four  hours;  seedlings  of  com  which  were 
started  at  periods  of  one,  two,  and  four  weeks  before  the  date  of 
the  exercise ;  mature  com  plants. 

Directions.  Study  the  oldest  seedlings  and  make  a  sketch  show- 
ing accurately  roots,  stem,  and  leaves.  Trace  these  structures  back 
through  younger  seedlings  and  finally  to  the  grain,  and  discover 
the  stages  in  the  development  of  the  different  parts.  Examine  a 
transverse  section  of  a  mature  stalk  of  com.  Describe  its  stmc- 
ture.  Examine  a  cross  section  under  the  microscope  and  make 
drawings  to  show  the  plant  fibers.  What  are  they  called,  and  what 
purpose  do  they  fulfill  ?  Note  the  hard  outer  fiber  around  the  stalk. 
What  is  its  use  ?  Note  the  shape  of  the  stalk  between  the  joints. 
Observe  the  manner  in  which  the  leaves  are  arranged  on  the  stalk. 
Notice  the  shape  of  the  leaves  and  how  they  are  equipped  to  with- 
stand a  strong  wind.  Take  hold  of  a  leaf  near  the  end  and  pull  it 
around  as  if  to  break  it  from  the  stalk.  Study  the  sheath.  Notice 
where  it  bends  and  how  difficult  it  is  to  break  from  the  stalk. 
What  purpose  does  it  serve?  Observe  how  water  is  prevented, 
from  passing  into  the  sheath.  Explain  the  advantage  to  the  plant 
of  this  arrangement.  Note  the  whorls  of  roots  just  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  Explain  their  value.  Explain  how  a  corn  plant 
assumes  an  upright  position  after  having  been  blown  over  by  a  wind. 

Questions.  Is  the  shape  of  the  internodes  of  any  advantage  to  the  plant?  What  is  the  most 
valuable  part  of  the  plant  to  man  ?  Is  the  remainder  of  the  plant  of  any  value  ?  In  what  respects  ? 
Name  as  many  products  as  possible  that  are  made  from  the  corn  plant.  About  how  many  days  does 
it  require  for  corn  to  mature  from  the  date  of  seeding?  What  is  the  average  yield  of  com  in  your 
community  ?  What  is  the  highest  yield  ?  What  is  the  average  yield  for  the  United  States  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  pp.  26-27, 138.  Ginn  and  Company.  Montgomery, 
E.  G.  The  Corn  Crops,  pp.  26-38.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Myrick,  Herbert.  The  Book  of  Corn,  p.  6. 
Orange  Judd  Company.   Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops,  pp.  80-88.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[60] 


Fig.  32.    Parts  of  the  corn  plant 


i 


r 


EXERCISE   31 


THE  CORN  FLOWER 


Fig.  33.   Com  tassel  and  ear  showing  silk 


Statement.   The  flowers  of  the  com  plant  are  arranged  in  clusters  in  two  different  parts  of  the  plant. 
The  male  flowers  form  in  the  tassel,  while  the  female  flowers  form  on  the  cob  and  are  surrounded  by 

the  husks.  The  flowers  in  the  tassel  contain  the  pollen  grains 
which,  when  ripe,  are  liberated  from  pollen  sacs.  When  a  pollen 
grain  falls  upon  a  com  silk  it  begins  to  grow,  and  the  long, 
slender  thread  which  it  puts  forth  reaches  the  base  of  the  silk 
and  carries  with  it  the  cell  which  fertilizes  the  female  cell  within 
the  undeveloped  kernel.  This  fertilized  cell  grows  and  becomes 
the  embryo  corn  plant  and  the  kernel  then  develops  to  maturity 
and  is  ready  to  reproduce  its  kind. 

Object.  To  observe  how  the  com  flower  is  pollinated,  where 
the  pollen  forms,  and  how  it  is  distributed. 

Materials.  Ears  of  mature  com ;  a  microscope ;  com  tas- 
sels and  ear  shoots  which  were  preserved  in  formalin  just  as  the 
flowers  were  opening,  or  fresh  flowers  if  available. 

Directions.  Examine  ear  shoots  and  mature  ears,  noticing 
where  the  silks  are  attached.  Examine  the  tassel  of  the  corn 
plant  and  observe  how  the  pollen  sacs  are  attached  to  the 
tassel.  Examine  a  pollen  sac  under  the  microscope  and  make 
a  drawing  to  show  its  shape.  Show  in  the  drawing  where  the 
ripe  pollen  escapes  from  the  sac.  Examine  the  surface  of 
a  pollen  grain  under  the  microscope.  Describe  it.  Observe 
whether  the  pollen  grains  and  silks  of  a  stalk  of  corn  ripen  at 
the  same  time  or  whether  the  silks  of  one  plant  are,  as  a  rule, 
pollinated  by  the  pollen  from  neighboring  plants.  In  other 
words,  observe  whether  the  corn  is  self-  or  cross-pollinated. 
Observe  the  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  silks  and  how  dust 
or  pollen  grains  stick  once  they  come  in  contact  with  the  silks. 
Explain  the  significance  of  this. 

Notice  the  amount  of  pollen  a  com  plant  produces.  Ob- 
serve the  groimd,  the  plants,  and  your  clothing  when  walking 
through  a  field  of  corn  that  is  in  full  bloom.  Does  there  seem 
to  be  a  scarcity  of  pollen  ? 

Questions.  What  does  a  pollen  grain  do  after  reaching  the 
silks  ?  Is  there  an  excess  of  poUen  produced  ?  What  happens  if  pollen  from  one  kind  of  com  fertilizes 
the  female  cell  of  another  kind  of  corn  ?  Is  corn  inbred  or  crossbred  ?  When  two  varieties  of  corn  are 
planted  side  by  side  will  the  crop  from  each  be  pure  and  true  to  the  seed  planted  ?  Explain  fully  what 
will  happen  and  how  it  is  brought  about.  How  far  may  corn  pollen  be  carried  by  the  wind  ?  In  growing 
pure  seed  corn  what  precautions  should  one  take  ?  Are  the  same  precautions  necessary  in  growing  pure 
seed  of  other  farm  crops  and  why  ? 


Fig.  34.    Results  of  poor  pollination 

When  scanty  pollination  occurs,  few  ovules  are 
fertilized  and  few  kernels  develop. 


References.  Waters,  H.  J. 
Southern  Field  Crops,  pp.  88-89. 
Orange  Judd  Company. 


Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  138.    Ginn  and  Company.    Duggar,  J.  F. 
The  Macmillan  Company.   Hunt,  T.  F.   The  Cereals  in  America,  p.  185. 


62 


I 


EXERCISE  32 


—crown  starch 
■homy  starch 

shoot  of  embryo 

homy  starch 

germ 

root  of  embryo 

tip  starch 

-—  hull 
■—  tip  cap 

Fig.  3s.   Physical  parts  of  com  kernel 


A  DETAILED  STUDY  OF  THE  CORN  KERNEL 

Statement.  In  selecting  seed  com  it  is  very  important  to  choose  a  type  which  is  adapted  to  the 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  under  which  the  crop  is  to  be  grown. 

Object.  To  determine  how  near  com  kernels  conform  to  the 
standard  and  to  develop  skill  in  judging  seed  corn. 

Materials.  A  small  piece  of  board  or  a  shingle  ts  inch  thick ;  ears 
of  show  or  seed  com ;  a  sharp  knife ;  a  few  small  naUs. 

Directions,  i.  Cut  notches  in  the  board  or  shingle  into  which 
com  kernels  of  the  proper  size  and  shape  for  the  locality  will  fit  and 
use  this  form  in  measuring  the  length,  breadth,  and  thickness  of 
kernels  from  the  standard  varieties  of  com ;  from  different  types  of 
the  same  variety  and  from  different  parts  of  the  same  ear. 

2.  Choose  a  dozen  type  ears  and  compare  and  classify  the  kernels 
with  respect  to  uniformity  in  size,  shape,  and  color ;  in  depth,  width, 
and  thickness,  using  the  specifications  of  the  score  card  as  a  basis.  Compare  the  germs  as  to  size, 
shape,  plumpness,  and  color  as  discussed  in  the  text.  Select  tJie  type  of  kernel  best  suited  to  rich 
land  with  abundant  moisture ;  the  type  best  adapted  to  upland  or  a  dry  season.  With  the  aid  of 
the  teacher  and  the  most  successful  corn  growers  of  the  community  choose  the  type  of  grains  best 
suited  to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  locality. 

Measure  the  grains  chosen  and  determine  their  approximate  dimensions.  Compare  these  dimensions 
with  those  of  grains  which  are  believed  to  be  unsuited  to  local  conditions.  Make  natural-sized  drawings 
of  the  desirable  kernels  and  discuss  fully  their  qualifications.    Give  the  reasons  for  your  conclusions. 

3.  In  consultation  with  the  experienced  stockmen  of  the  neighborhood  classify  the  selected  corn 
kernels  according  to  their  value  as  feed  for  fattening  stock,  giving  in  writing  the  reasons  for  your 
classification.  Compare  in  detail  the  character  of 
the  best  class  of  kernels  for  feeding  stock  with  those 
which  you  have  chosen  as  the  best  for  planting. 

Questions.  Which  part  of  the  ear  shows  the 
most  uniformity  in  size  and  shape  of  kernel  ?  How 
may  the  size  and  shape  of  the  kernels  planted  influ- 
ence the  yield  ?  Why  is  a  thin  kernel  undesirable  to 
plant  ?  What  relationship  does  the  size  of  the  germ 
have  to  the  early  growth  of  the  plant  ?  Why  should 
we  grade  seed  com  before  planting  it?  How  is 
com  usually  graded?  Should  kernels  with  dark 
colored  or  moldy  germs  be  chosen  for  seed?  Give 
reasons  for  your  answer.  Should  kernels  with  small 
or  shriveled  germs  be  chosen?  Give  reasons.  What  does  a  deep,  narrow,  thin,  chaffy  kernel  indicate 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  chmate  required  by  the  type  of  corn  it  represents?  What  does  a  shal- 
low, broad,  flinty  kernel  indicate?  In  what  respects  wiU  the  season  affect  the  type  of  kernel  pro- 
duced? A  dry  season;  an  ideal  season;  a  wet  season;  a  short  season  or  one  in  which  the  com 
fails  to  mature  fuUy.   How  do  the  seasons  affect  the  feeding  value  of  the  grain? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  140-145-  Ginn  and  Company.  Myrick, 
Herbert.  The  Book  of  Corn,  pp.  84-85.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops, 
pp.  92-95.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Morgan,  J.  O.  Field  Crops  for  the  Cotton  Belt,  pp.  159-160.  TheMac- 
millan  Company. 

[64] 


mm 


Fig.  36.    High  and  low  producing  seed  grains 

At  the  left,  strong,  vigorous  grains  with  well-formed  germs;  seed 
of  the  ear  from  which  these  grains  were  taken  yielded  8i  bushels  to 
an  acre  in  an  ear-row  test  in  Kansas;  at  the  right,  weaker  grains  of 
the  same  variety  as  at  the  left ;  germs  not  so  well  developed ;  yield 
of  seed  from  this  ear  51  bushels. 


\ 


EXERCISE  33 


Fig.  37.    Desirable  and  undesirable  types  of  kernels 


THE   BUTT  AND  TIP  KERNELS  OF  SEED   CORN 

Statement.   In  the  development  of  the  corn  ear  the  silks  attached  to  the  butt  kernels  mature  first, 
therefore  the  butt  kernels  are  the  first  to  form  their  embryos.   The  silks  attached  to  the  tip  kernels 

mature  last,  and  the  kernels  are  the  last 
to  form  their  embryos.  The  pollen  which 
first  ripens  is  usually  produced  by  barren 
stalks  or  by  plants  which  because  of 
their  earliness  are  small.  The  pollen  last 
produced  is  from  late-maturing  stalks, 
many  of  which  are  weak  and  unproductive. 
Since  the  butt  and  tip  kernels  are  fertilized 
by  pollen  from  these  undesirable  plants,  such  kernels  should  not  be  used  for  seed.  Also,  the  tip 
kernels  do  not  contain  enough  stored  food  for  the  little  plant,  nor  are  they  properly  shaped  to  contain 
a  strong  germ. 

Object.   To  compare  the  relative  value  of  butt,  body,  and  tip  kernels  for  seed. 

Materials.  Ears  of  corn ;  a  corn  planter ;  plot  of  ground,  or  a  box  of  sand  if  no  plot  of  ground  is 
available ;  a  corn  grader. 

Directions,   i.  Examine  kernels  from  the  butt  and  tip.   Note  the  shape,  soundness  and  size  of 
the  grains. 

2.  Prop  up  a  corn  planter  and  by  turning  the  wheels  test  the  accuracy  of  the  drop,  first  using 
body  kernels  of  corn  and  then  using  kernels  from  the  entire  ear ;  then  from  the  butt ;  then  from  the  tip. 

3.  Plant  in  one  row  of  the  seed  plot  or  of  the  box  of 
sand  butt  kernels  of  corn.  In  another  row  plant  body 
kernels  and  in  the  third  row  plant  tip  kernels.  Give  the 
three  rows  the  same  treatment  and  observe  any  differences 
that  may  occur.  Record  the  number  of  barren  stalks  pro- 
duced in  each  row;  number  of  ears  of  corn;  amount  of 
corn  by  weight;  number  of  "suckers,"  and  uniformity  of 
stand.  If  the  exercise  is  performed  indoors,  only  the  early 
growth  can  be  observed. 

4.  Sort  one-half  peck  of  shelled  corn  through  a  corn 
grader.  Figure  the  percentage  of  kernels  that  are  removed. 
Is  the  grading  of  corn  in  this  manner  a  slow  or  difficult 
process?  Take  the  corn  that  has  passed  through  the  grader 
and  sort  it  by  hand,  removing  any  broken,  ill-shaped,  or 
undesirable  kernels. 


Fig.  38.    Good  and  poor  butts  and  tips 


Questions.  What  percentage  of  the  kernels  are  found 
to  be  undesirable  when  run  through  the  grader  ?  Consider- 
ing what  would  have  been  lost  by  planting  the  bad  kernels, 
would  it  be  worth  while  to  hand  grade  the  kernels  ?  How  do  uniform  kernels  help  to  produce  a  uni- 
form stand?  Explain  how  a  kernel  of  seed  corn  which  has  been  fertilized  from  a  weak  or  barren 
stalk  is  likely  to  be  affected  in  its  power  to  produce. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  p.  143.  Ginn  and  Company.  Hxtnt,  T.  F.  Cereals 
in  America,  pp.  148,  200.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Myrick,  Herbert.  The  Book  of  Corn,  pp.  78-79.  Orange 
Judd  Company. 

[66] 


EXERCISE  34 

A  DETAILED   STUDY  OF  THE   CORN  EAR 

Object.   To  estimate  the  points  of  superiority  in  ears  of  com  and 
to  determine  the  character  of  the  qualities  essential  to  good  seed  corn. 

Materials.  Three  ears  of  corn  for  each  student  in 
the  class,  with  a  few  extra  ears  for  further  comparison. 
Textbook  statements  of  what  constitutes  a  good  ear. 

Directions.  In  each  vertical  column  in  the  follow- 
ing outline  enter  the  statements  which  express  your 
judgment  of  the  character  of  each  of  the  qualities 
listed  for  an  ear  of  corn.  Repeat  this  for  two  other 
ears ;  then  compare  your  statements  and  compare  the 
ears  to  see  if  you  have  described  them  accurately. 

Classify  the  shape  of  ears  as  cylindrical,  tapering, 
or  irregular.  Length  of  ears  should  include  extreme 
length,  considering  projecting  cob  as  a  part  of  the 
ear.  The  circumference  should  be  taken  at  one  third 
the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the  tip.  Color  of  kernels 
should  show  the  number  of  kernels  not  of  the  same 
color  as  the  ear.  Indentation  should  be  classed  as 
broad,  deep,  or  chaffy.  The  number  of  rows  depends 
upon  the  type  and  variety  of  corn.   The  spacing  of  the  kernels  should  be  such 


Fig.  41.  Deep  and  shallow  kernels 
At  left,  deep;  at  right,  shallow 


Fig.  39.  Grand  sweep- 
stakes.  Single  ear  at 
the  Iowa  State  Corn 
Show 


as  to  allow  a  maximum  amount  of  corn;   that  is,  the  kernels  should  fit  tightly 
one  against  another.     Designate  the  spacing  at  the  crown  and  at  the  cob  as 
close  or  loose.    Classify  the  pairing  of  the  rows  as  distinct  or  indefinite ;  classify  tips  as  blunt  or  taper- 
ing;   classify  butts   as    expanded, 
contracted,  or  cylindrical;  classify 
shanks  as  large,  medium,  and  small. 

Questions.  What  is  the  proper 
length  for  an  ear  of  dent  corn  in 
your  community?  What  has  hap- 
p)ened  when  ears  of  corn  display 
more  than  one  color?  Describe  the 
appearance  of  a  chaffy  kernel  of 
corn.  In  what  dimension  is  a  chaffy 
kernel  usually  deficient  ?  If  kernels 
are  narrow,  what  about  the  spacing 
at  the  crown?  If  narrow,  what 
about  spacing  at  the  cob?  If 
narrow,  how  is  size  of  the  germ 
affected  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essen- 
tials of  Agriculture,  pp.  142-147. 
Ginn  and  Company.  Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops,  pp. 
loi-iii.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Myrick,  Herbert.  The 
Book  of  Corn,  pp.  75-87.    Orange  Judd  Company. 

[68] 


Fig.  40.   Wide  and  narrow 
spacing  on  the  cob 


Fig.  42.    Undesirable  ty-pes  of  ears 

At  the  left,  grains  spaced  too  wide ;  in  the  middle, 
ear  too  slender ;  at  the  right,  ear  too  short  and  thick 


EXERCISE  34  (Continued) 
A  DETAILED   STUDY  OF  AN  EAR  OF  CORN 


Ear  No.  1 

Ear  No.  2 

Ear  No.  3 

Ear  No.  4 

Ear  No.  5 

Ear 

1.  Shape 

2.  Length 

3.    Circumference . 

Kernel 

1.  Color 

2.  Amount  of  indentation 

3.  Shape 

Narrowside 

Rows 

1.  Number 

2.  Spacing 

At  crown  of  grains 

• 

At  cob 

3.   Pairing  of  rows 

Tip 

Butt     .    .    ; 

Shank       

[69] 


EXERCISE  35 

SCORING  A  TEN-EAR  SAMPLE  OF  CORN 

Statement.  When  an  individual  is  able  to  compare  and  judge  ears  of  corn  rapidly  and  accurately, 
he  has  developed  "  corn  judgment,"  a  trait  which  can  only  be  acquired  by  experience  and  study. 
To  a  beginner  a  score  card  designating  the  principal  points  to  be  considered  is  very  helpful.  It  is  not 
a  rule ;  it  is  only  a  device  to  aid  in  forming  correct  judgment. 

Object.   To  determine  the  relative  merits  of  ears  of  corn  from  a  physical  examination. 

Materials.  Ten  selected  ears  of  corn  for  each  pupil;  tape  measure  12  inches  long;  a  sharp 
pocket  knife ;   a  magnifying  glass. 

Directions,  i.  Score  each  ear  of  the  ten  selected,  and  record  the  score  of  each  on  the  score  card 
which  follows.    After  your  score  has  been  gone  over  by  the  instructor,  make  notes  at  the  bottom  of  the 

score  card  showing  where 
errors  were  made,  and  why. 
After  all  exhibits  are  scored, 
examine  carefully  those  re- 
ceiving the  highest  score. 

2.  Each  pupil  should 
select  the  best  single  ear 
from  his  ten-ear  exhibit 
and  enter  it  in  a  single-ear 
contest.  After  the  best  ear 
in  the  entire  lot  is  selected, 
mount  it  and  label  it  the 
prize  winner  from  the 
standpoint  of  appearance. 
In  a  home  project  exercise  outlined  later  the  prize  winner  will  be  chosen  from  the  standpoint  of  per- 
formance in  an  ear-row  test.  Selection  by  means  of  physical  examination  is  very  helpful  and  is  the 
only  feasible  plan  of  general  seed  selection,  but  the  final  test  is  the  record  of  performance  in  the  field. 
3.  Save  for  future  use  all  the  ears  judged,  being  sure  to  keep  them  properly  tagged  so  that  their 
history  may  be  traced  at  any  time. 

Questions.  What  points  on  the  score  card  are  given  the  most  consideration  ?  Why?  What  is  the 
required  length  for  a  standard  ear  of  corn  in  your  community?  Why  does  the  size  of  the  ideal  ear 
vary  in  different  regions  ?  If  a  kernel  of  corn  produces  a  stalk  containing  one  or  two  average-sized  ears, 
how  many  kernels  are  produced  from  the  one  planted  ?  How  many  ears  of  average  size  for  your  com- 
mtmity  are  required  to  plant  an  acre?  How  many  acres  of  com  will  a  bushel  of  seed  plant?  At  $1,  $2, 
$3,  $5  a  bushel  respectively,  what  is  the  seed  cost  for  an  acre?  If  properly  selected  seed  will  produce 
five  bushels  an  acre  more  than  ordinary  seed  how  much  more  could  the  farmer  afford  to  pay  for  it 
rather  than  use  ordinary  seed  ?  How  many  hours  could  he  afford  to  spend  growing  or  selecting  such 
seed  rather  than  plant  the  unselected  sort  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  pp.  138-148,  211.  Ginn  and  Company.  Hunt,  T.  F. 
The  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  170-171.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Myrick,  Herbert.  The  Book  of  Corn,  pp.  75- 
87.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops,  pp.  loi-i  11.  The  MacmiUan  Company. 
Montgomery,  E.  G.  The  Corn  Crops,  pp.  253-259.   The  MacmiUan  Company. 


Fig.  43.    A  grand  sweepstakes  exhibit  at  the  Indiana  State  Corn  Show 


[70] 


EXERCISE  35  (Continued) 
SCORE   CARD   FOR  INDIVIDUAL  EARS  OF   CORN 


Scale  oj  Points 

Pos- 
sible 
Score 

Points  Deficient 

Student's  Score 

Corrected  Score 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1 

2 



3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1.  Variety  type.    The  ear  should  conform  to  the  general  type 
of  the  variety  to  which  it  belongs,  in  respect  to  size  and  shape 
of  ear,  color  of  kernels  and  cob,  and  width,  thickness,  depth, 
shape,  spacing,  and  indentation  of  kernels.    When  variety 
type  is  not  known,  give  perfect  score  on  this  point  .     .     . 

2.  Maturity    and    soundness.     The    ear    should    be    well- 
matured,  dry,  firm  when  twisted,  and  of  good  weight  for 
its  size  and  condition.     Sappiness,  moldiness  at  the  crowns 
of  the  kernels  and  at  the  cob,  looseness  of  com  on  cob, 
chaffiness,  adherence  of  tip  caps  to  cob  and  of  consider- 
able chaff  to  the  tips,  are  all  indications  of  immaturity. 
Decayed,   mouse-eaten,   and    insect-injured    kernels   are 
unsound  and  also  indicate  a  poor  seed  condition      .     .     . 

3.  Purity,     (i)  0/  kernels.     Kemeb  should  be  free  from 
mixture  with  com  of  other  colors.     Mixture  in  yellow 
corn  is  shown  on  the  caps  of  the  kemels  and  in  white 
corn  usually  on  the  sides.      Deduct  one-half  point  for 
each  kemel  distinctly  showing  undesired  color.     If  in 
competition,  ten  or  more  mixed  kernels  should  bar  the 
ear.     (2)  0/  cob.     Cobs  in  yellow  com  usually  should  be 
red  (the  shade  of  red  desired  varying  with  variety) ;  and 
in  white  com,  white.     For  pink  cobs,  cut  according  to 
shade.     A   cob   of  distinctly   undesired   color,   unless  a 
variety  characteristic,  should  be  given  a  score  of  zero, 
and  if  in  competition,  the  ear  should  be  barred   .... 

4.  Shape   of   ear.     In  general   a  well-shaped   ear   should 
(i)  be  nearly  cylindrical;    (2)  have  straight  rows  miming 
directly  from  butt  to  tip;    (3)  be  full  and  strong  in  the 
middle  portion;    (4)  not  be  flattened.     Such  an  ear  will 
shell  a  high  percentage  of  uniformly  shaped  kemels 

5.  Size  and  shape  of  kernels.     Size  of  kemels  includes  the 
depth,  width,  and  thickness.     For  average  corn-belt  con- 
ditions a  medium  depth  of  kernel  usually  produces  the 
largest  yield  of  mature  com.     The  width,  thickness,  and 
shape  of  kemels  vary  with  varieties.     As  a  general  rule, 
however,  they  should  be  keystone-shaped,  permitting  the 
edges  of  the  kernels  to  touch  from  crown  to  tip.     As  to 
thickness,  the  kernels  should  number  about  six  to  the 
inch  in  the  row 

S 
15 

S 
10 

10 

S 

10 

s 
s 
s 

s 

— 

— 

— 

6.  Uniformity  of  kernels.     The  kemels  should  be  uniform 
in  depth,  width,  thickness,  and  shape  throughout  the  ear. 
Irregular  kernels  are  objectionable 

7.  Size  and  condition  of  germs.    The  germs  should  be  long, 
wide,  thick,  smooth,  and  bright  and  should  not  be  shriv- 
eled,   blistered,    shrunken,    moldy,    or   discolored.     The 
embryo  proper  should  show  a  fresh,  oily,  and  live  appear- 
ance and  be  yellowish-white  in  color 

8.  Butt.   The  butt  should  carry  out  the  circumference  of 
the  ear  uniformly  and  not  be  pinched,  enlarged,  expanded, 
or  flattened.     It  should  be  well  rounded  out  with  straight 
rows  of  regular  kemels  having  nearly  the  same  depth, 
width,  thickness,  and  shape  as  the  body  kernels.     The 
grains  on  the  butt  should  be  uniformly  arranged  around 
a  medium-sized,  cup-shaped  cavity 

9.  Tip.    The  tip  should  be  covered  to  the  end  of  the  cob 
with  kernels  arranged  in  straight  rows  and  having  nearly 
the  same  size  and  shape  as  the  body  kemels.     Shallow, 
narrow,    irregular,    glistening,    and    shot-shaped    kemels 
are  objectionable 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 



— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

10.  Space  between  rows  and  kernels.   Large,  open  spaces 
between  the  rows  cither  at  the  crowns  or  the  tips  of  grains 
or  between  the  kemels  in  the  same  row  are  objectionable. 
There  should  be  only  enough  space  to  permit  satisfactory 
drying  of  the  ear.    Too  close  spacing  is  also  objectionable. 

1 1 .  Proportion  of  grain  to  cob.  The  proportion  of  grain  to  cob 
differs  with  varieties  and  with  the  latitude  under  which 
grown.     A  reasonably  good  seed  ear  should  shell  from  85 
to  87  per  cent.  The  occurrence  of  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing factors  may  indicate  a  low  proportion  of  grain  to  cob: 
(i)  large  cob;   (2)  moist  and  heavy  cob ;  (.3)  shallow  ker- 
nels ;  (4)  wide  space  between  rows  either  at  the  crowns  or 
the  tips  of  the  kernels  in  the  same  row ;  (5)  butts  and  tips 
much  exposed ;  (6)  butt  and  tip  kernels  extremely  shallow. 

71 


EXERCISE  36 


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FACTORS  DETERMINESTG  THE  YIELD  OF  CORN 

Statement.  The  average  corn  yield  of  the  United  States  is  about  24  bushels  an  acre,  while  the 
best  fanners  secure  from  70  to  100  bushels.   As  many  as  228I  bushels  have  been  produced  by  a  Com 

Club  boy  in  South  Carolina.  Is  the  reason  for 
the  low  average  yield  the  small  size  of  the  ears 
produced,  or  the  small  number  of  ears,  or  both  ? 

Object.  To  determine  the  cause  for  the  wide 
variation  in  the  acre  production  of  com. 

Materials.  Scales;  tape  measure;  ears  of  com 
of  average  size.  An  ear  weighing  six  ounces  and 
one  weighing  approximately  2^  ounces. 

Directions,  i.  Have  each  student  secure  an  ear 
of  corn  of  approximately  the  average  size  for  the 
locality.  Ascertain  the  weight,  length,  and  circum- 
ference of  these  average  ears  and  compare  the 
results  with  the  standard  for  your  section  of  the 
state  as  determined  by  the  score  card  of  your 
Agricultural  College  or  Corn  Growers'  Association. 

2.  When  corn  is  planted  in  hills  3^  feet  apart 
each  way,  there  are  3556  hills  on  an  acre. 

3.  Compute  the  yield  of  com  per  acre  with  three 
stalks  to  the  hill,  a  perfect  stand,  and  each  stalk 
bearing  an  ear,  assuming  that  each  ear  weighed  the 
same  as  the  average  of  the  ears  brought  in  by  the 
students.  How  does  this  yield  compare  with  the 
actual  yield  of  the  neighborhood  ? 

4.  Compute  the  yield,  assuming  that  the  ears  weigh  6  oimces  each.  How  does  this  yield  compare 
with  the  local  yield  ?  Secure  a  6-ounce  ear.  How  does  it  compare  with  the  average  ear  brought  in 
by  the  students? 

5.  Compute  the  yield  on  the  basis  of  a  2§-ounce  ear  to  each  stalk.  Compare  this  yield  with  the  local 
yield  and  with  the  average  yield  of  the  United  States.  Compare  a  2^-ounce  ear  with  the  ears  brought  in 
by  the  students. 

6.  Assuming  that  the  students  have  brought  in  ears  of  average  size  for  the  neighborhood  and 
assuming  the  average  yield  for  the  United  States  to  be  24  bushels  an  acre,  what  proportion  of  the 
stalks  have  ears  on  the  basis  of  a  perfect  stand  of  three  stalks  to  the  hill  ?  What  proportion  have 
ears  on  the  basis  of  two  stalks  to  the  hill  and  a  perfect  stand  ? 

Questions.  Is  the  low  yield  of  the  neighborhood  due  to  the  small  size  of  the  ears  or  to  the  small  num- 
ber of  ears  produced  per  acre  ?  Is  the  small  niunber  of  ears  produced  due  to  the  imperfections  of  stand  or 
to  the  large  number  of  barren  stalks,  or  both?  How  in  your  judgment  may  the  com  yield  be  most 
readily  increased? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  135.  Ginn  and  Company.  Duggak,  J.  F. 
Southern  Field  Crops,  pp.  114-119.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Morgan,  J.  O.  Field  Crops  for  the  Cotton 
Belt,  pp.  243-244.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Montgomery,  E.  G.  The  Corn  Crops,  pp.  57-58,  122-123. 
The  Macmillan  Company. 

[72] 


Fig.  44.   Comparative  weights  of  ears  of  com 

a,  12  ounces;  i,  6  ounces;  c,  23  ounces.    Which  of  these  ears  of  corn 

represents  the  size  of  ear  produced  in  the  neighborhood  ?   Is  the  small 

size  of  ear  the  principal  cause  of  low  yields? 


► 


EXERCISE  37 


A  FIELD   STUDY  OF  THE  DEFICIENCIES  OF  CORN  PLANTS 

Statement.   Low  yields  of  corn  are  not  due  to  a  single  cause.   The  deficiencies  in  the  average  field 
of  com  are  numerous  and  require  wide  knowledge  of  soils  and  plant  life  to  correct  them. 

Object.  To  determine  the  influence  of  the  stand  and  the 
proportion  of  barren  to  fruitful  stalks  upon  the  yield  of  corn ; 
also  the  causes  of  poor  stands  and  of  barrenness  of  stalks. 

Materials.  Measuring  stick  or  tape  measure ;  spring 
balances ;  a  bag  or  bushel  basket. 

Directions.  Select  a  row  of  com  that  represents,  as 
nearly  as  may  be  ascertained  by  the  eye,  the  average  of 
the  field  and  measure  the  distance  between  the  rows.  If 
the  rows  are  3^  feet  apart,  a  row  125  feet  long  will  be  the 
equivalent  of  one  hundredth  of  an  acre.  In  any  case, 
measure  off  a  row  long  enough  to  be  the  equivalent  of  one 
hundredth  of  an  acre. 

Count  the  hills  in  the  row ;  the  number  of  hills  missing ; 
the  number  with  one  stalk,  with  two  stalks,  with  three 
stalks,  with  more  than  three  stalks.  Compute  the  average 
number  of  stalks  in  a  hill ;  the  total  number  of  stalks  in 
the  row.  Count  the  nmnber  of  stalks  with  one  good  ear, 
with  two  good  ears;  the  mmiber  bearing  nubbins  (ears 
under  five  inches  in  length) ;  the  number  of  barren  stalks ; 
the  total  number  of  ears;  the  total  weight  of  ears;  the 
percentage  of  stalks  bearing  good  ears ;  the  estimated  5deld ; 
and  the  number  of  ears  to  the  acre.  1 

Compute  the  yield  per  acre  on  the  basis  of  a  perfect  ' 
stand  and  each  stalk  bearing  an  ear  weighing  12  ounces, 
and  compare  the  result  with  the  actual  increase  in  yield 
per  acre  if  each  stalk  found  barren  or  producing  only  a 
nubbin  had  borne  a  normal  ear. 

Explain  some  of  the  causes  for  poor  stands  and  barrenness 
and  how  these  defects  may  be  remedied. 

Fill  in  these  data  on  the  form  opposite  and  discuss  the 
results  obtained. 

Questions.  How  could  the  farmer  have  increased  his 
yield  ?   Would  the  row  you  have  examined  be  a  good  place 


Fig.  45.  High  and  low  yielding  ears 
The  difference  in  the  yielding  power  of  different  ears  of 
com  of  the  same  variety  is  well  illustrated  by  the  produc- 
ing record  of  the  ears  shown.  These  two  ears  were  selected 
from  the  same  field  as  good  seed  and  the  grains  planted 
side  by  side  and  given  the  same  care.  The  seed  from  the 
ear  at  the  left  yielded  i6  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  seed 
from  the  ear  at  the  right  yielded  70  bushels  per  acre. 
(Courtesy  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College) 


for  the  farmer  to  obtain  seed  for  the  next  year's  planting  ? 
On  the  basis  of  90  per  cent  of  a  perfect  stand  what  would  have  been  the  yield  of  the  row  you  counted  ? 
What  would  have  been  the  yield  if  each  stalk  had  borne  a  12 -ounce  ear?  Will  the  ears  be  as  large 
and  the  proportion  of  fruitful  stalks  as  large  with  a  perfect  stand  as  with  80  per  cent  of  a  stand? 
In  a  very  dry  season  is  a  thick  or  a  thin  stand  best  and  why  ?  In  a  wet  season  which  is  best  and 
why?  On  rich  land?  On  poor  land?   Which  when  the  variety  planted  is  large?     When  it  is  small? 


References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  137,  141- 
The  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  196-197.   Orange  Judd  Company. 

[74] 


Ginn  and  Company.    Hitnt,  T.  F. 


EXERCISE  37  (Continued) 
FIELD   SURVEY  OF   CORN 


Row  No.  1 

Row  No.  2 

Row  No.  3 

Row  No.  4 

Number  of  hills  counted 

Number  of  hills  misslns 

Number  of  hills  with  one  stalk '  . 

Number  of  hills  with  two  stalks 

Number  of  hills  with  three  stalks 

Number  of  hills  with  more  than  three  stalks   .     .     . 

Total  number  of  stalks 

Average  number  of  stalks  per  hill 

Number  of  stalks  with  one  good  ear 

Number  of  stalks  with  two  good  ears 

Number  of  stalks  bearing  nubbins 

Number  of  barren  stalks       

Total  number  of  ears 

Percentage  of  stalks  bearing  good  ears 

Estimated  acre  yield 

Estimated  number  of  ears  to  the  acre 

Average  weight  of  each  ear 

With  each  stalk  producing  one  12-ounce  ear  what 
would  have  been  the  yield  per  acre  ? 

I 


[75] 


EXERCISE   38 

SELECTING  SEED   CORN  FROM  THE  FIELD 

Statement.  After  the  measurements  .of  a  desirable  ear  of  com  are  known  and  the  shape  and  char- 
acteristics of  the  various  parts  understood,  there  still  remains  the  practical  application  of  the  principles. 
Selecting  seed  from  the  field  applies  these  principles  and  develops  in  the  individual  the  power  of  quick 
decision  and  sound  judgment. 

Object.   To  learn  how  to  select  seed  corn  in  the  field. 

Materials.  A  bag  swung  over  the  shoulder  like  a  game  sack  or  a  basket ;  a  tape  measure ;  a  note- 
book ;  some  small  tags ;  a  field  of  well-bred,  mature  corn. 

Directions.  Each  student  should  go  into  the  field  and  select  ten  ears  of  seed  corn,  noting  carefully 
the  points  governing  seed  selection.   The  blank  form  on  the  opposite  page  should  be  used,  and  all  data 


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Fig.  46.    Students  acquiring  com  judgment  and  securing  seed  for  their  home  project 

concerning  the  ears  chosen  and  the  plants  which  produced  them  should  be  entered.  Wrap  and  number 
each  ear  selected  so  that  it  may  be  preserved  and  identified.     Keep  a  complete  record  for  reference. 

After  selecting  the  ten  ears  and  collecting  the  data  return  to  the  laboratory  and  place  the  ten  ears 
side  by  side.  Judging  from  the  appearance  of  the  ears  and  from  the  data  collected  concerning  them, 
select  the  best  ear  of  the  ten.  Enter  it  in  competition  with  the  ears  selected  by  other  students  in  an 
ear-row  test  to  be  conducted  the  following  summer  as  a  home  project  and  as  a  means  of  securing  good 
seed.     Use,  also,  in  this  ear-row  test  the  ear  selected  in  Exercise  35. 

At  the  close  of  the  competitive  judging  each  pupil  should  be  required,  as  a  home  project,  to  select 
enough  of  his  father's  seed  corn  for  the  next  season's  planting  or  to  select  enough  seed  further  to  develop 
and  fix  his  judgment. 

Questions.  What  determines  the  value  of  an  ear  of  seed  corn  ?  What  are  the  advantages  of  field 
selection  over  crib  selection?  When,  in  the  fall,  should  seed  corn  be  selected?  How  should  it  be 

[761 


EXERCISE  38  {Continued) 

protected  after  being  selected  ?  What  are  the  most  common  defects  of  seed  com  used  in  your  com- 
munity ?  Suggest  three  convenient  ways  of  storing  seed  corn  so  that  it  will  dry  quickly  and  be  protected 
against  injury  from  mice  and  rats.   Is  seed  corn  injured  by  low  temperature  when  moist  ?  When  dry  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  139-142.  Ginn  and  Company.  Montgomery, 
E.  G.  The  Corn  Crops,  pp.  85-93.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hunt,  T.  F.  The  Cereals  in  America,  p.  196. 
Orange  Judd  Company.  Myrick,  Herbert.  The  Book  of  Corn,  p.  70.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Morgan,  J. 
O.  Field  Crops  for  the  Cotton  Belt,  pp.  192-196.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field 
Crops,  pp.  130-13 1.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

SCORE   CARD   FOR  SELECTING   SEED   CORN  IN  THE   FIELD 


Possible 
Score 

Ear 
No.l 

Ear 

No.  2 

Ear 

No.  3 

Ear 
No.  4 

Ear 
No.  5 

Ear 
No.  6 

Ear 
No.  7 

Ear 
No.  8 

Ear 
No.  9 

Ear 
No.  10 

Stalk 

The  stalk  should  be  strong  and  vigorous  but  not 
coarse.     It   should   be   medium    sized,   well 
developed  at  the  base,  and  taper  gradually 
to  the  tassel.     It  should  stand  up  well,  show- 
ing a  good  root  system.   The  ears  should  be 
borne  at  a  height  of  from  three  to  four  feet, 
which  is  most  convenient  for  husking.  Record 
the  average  height  of  the  ears  from  the  ground 
on  each  stalk  from  which  you  make  a  selec- 
tion.  Record  the  nimiber  of  ears  on  each 
stalk ;   the  number  of  stalks  in  the  hill ;    the 
distance  in  each  direction  to  the  next  stalk ; 
the  leaf  surface  of  the  plant  from  which  ears 
are  selected.   A  large  leaf  area  indicates  well- 
developed  ears  containing  hardy,  well-filled 
kernels. 

30 

Shank  

The  shank  should  be  of  medium  length  and  size. 
If  large  or  too  short  the  ear  will  stick  up  when 
mature,  which  is  objectionable.    If  the  shank 
is  large,  it  makes  the  ear  difficult  to  break  off 
in  husking.   The  shank  should  not  be  excep- 
tionally small  or  it  will  not  support  the  ma- 
turing ear,  which  will  break  sharply  over, 
thus  cutting  off  its  own  food  supply. 

10 

Ear 

40 

The  ear  should  be  strong,  mature,  well  devel- 
oped, cylindrical,  and  its  circumference  near 
three  fourths  of  its  length.   It  should  have 
straight  rows  of  well-filled   kernels  and  tips 
filled  with  well-filled  kernels.  Ears  with  double- 
pointed  or  flattened  tips  should  be  discarded. 

Kernels 

20 

The  kernel  should  possess  medium  indentation. 
If  the  kernels  are  smooth,  they  are  generally 
quite  shallow,  and  if  too  rough,  the  strain  is 
not  likely  to  produce  well.  The  kernel  should 
show  purity  of  color. 

77 


EXERCISE  39 


Fig.  47.   Gennination-box  tester 


TESTING  SEED   CORN 

Statement.  Only  vigorous  seeds  will  produce  vigorous  plants.   Only  a  germination  test  made 
before  the  seeds  are  planted  will  answer  the  question  as  to  what  proportion  of  the  seeds  will  grow. 

Object.  To  ascertain  what  proportion  of  the  corn 
which  the  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  are  expecting 
to  plant  will  germinate  and  which  ears  will  produce 
vigorous  plants. 

Materials.  Shallow  box,  clean,  fine  sand ;  nails ; 
string ;  a  piece  of  white  cloth ;  seeds  to  be  tested  such 
as  50  ears  of  com. 

Directions,  i .  Germination-Box  Method.  Entirely 
aroimd  the  top  of  the  box  drive  nails  partly  into  the 
edges,  2  inches  apart.  Tie  string  to  these  nails  both 
ways  across  the  box  in  such  a  manner  that  the  box 
will  be  divided  into  2-inch  squares.  On  the  edge 
across  the  top  and  between  the  nails  letter  each  space. 
On  the  edge  down  one  side  and  between  the  nails  number  each  space.  Label  each  ear  of  com  to  be 
tested  by  placing  a  tag  on  it  marked  A-i,  A-2,  A-3,  etc.  Plant  in  the  square  six  kernels  taken  from 
different  parts  of  an  ear.  When  the  tester  is  filled,  cover  the  kernels  with  sand  to  a  depth  of  about 
one  half  an  inch.   Water  as  needed.   After  the  kernels  have  germinated,  record  the  results. 

2.  Rag-Doll  Method.  On  the  strip  of  cloth  about  12  inches  wide  and  2  yards  long  mark  a  heavy 
black  line  lengthwise  in  the  center.  Mark  cross  lines  about  three  inches  apart  on  one  half  of  the  cloth. 
Number  each  rectangle  thus  made  and  place  ker- 
nels of  com,  from  ears  numbered  to  correspond,  in 
the  space.  Beginning  at  the  end  of  the  cloth  that 
is  not  Uned,  roll  it  up,  being  careful  not  to  disturb 
the  kernels.  Tie  the  roll  at  the  ends  and  at  the 
middle.  Soak  the  roll  for  an  hour  in  water  and 
place  it  in  a  warm  place  for  the  seed  to  germinate. 
At  the  end  of  a  week  examine  the  seeds. 

Questions.  Is  it  possible  to  determine  by  the 
appearance  of  the  kernel  or  germ  whether  or  not 
the  grain  will  germinate?  Is  vigorous  seed  of 
more  importance  at  the  first  planting  when  the 

ground  is  wet  and  cold  than  for  late  planting  when  the  soil  is  warm,  and  why  ?  What  does  it 
cost  per  acre  to  plant  com  over?  What  when  the  ground  must  be  replowed?  Which  is  the 
better  prospect  for  a  good  crop,  com  which  is  planted  early  or  that  which  is  planted  late?  Get  the 
judgment  of  some  of  the  best  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  on  this  point  and  their  reasons  for  their 
answers.  Ask  them  also  what  they  estimate  to  be  the  loss  per  acre  in  planting  corn  over,  including 
the  possible  reduction  in  the  yield  due  to  later  planting.  What  is  the  safest  insurance  you  can  suggest 
against  a  poor  stand?  Does  your  school  test  the  seed  corn  for  the  farmers  of  the  community? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  147-148.  Ginn  and  Company.  Montgomery, 
E.  G.  The  Corn  Crops,  pp.  192-195.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Myrick,  Herbert.  The  Book  of  Corn, 
pp.  71-72.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Morgan,  J.  O.  Field  Crops  for  the  Cotton  Belt,  p.  238.  The  Macmillan 
Company.   Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops,  pp.  138-139.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[78] 


Fig.  48.    Rag-doll  tester 


EXERCISE  39  (Continued) 
RECORD  OF  GERMINATION  TEST 


Ear 
No.  A-1 

Ear 

No.  A-2 

Ear 
No.  A-3 

Ear 

No.  A-4 

Ear 
No.  A-S 

Ear 
No.  A-6 

Ear 

No.  A-7 

Ear 
No.  A-8 

Ear 
No.  A-9 

Ear 
No.  A-10 

Number  of  dead 
kernels    .     .     . 

Number  of  weak 
kernels    .     .     . 

Number  of  strong 
kernels    .     .     . 

Average  germina- 
tion   .... 

RECORD   OF   GERMINATION  TEST 


Ear 
No.  A-1 

Ear 
No.  A-2 

Ear 

No.  A-3 

Ear 

No.  A-4 

Ear 
No.  A-5 

Ear 
No.  A-6 

Ear 
No.  A-7 

Ear 
No.  A-8 

Ear 
No.  A-9 

Ear 
No.  A-10 

Number  of  dead 
kernels    .     .     . 

Number  of  weak 
kernels    .     .     . 

Number  of  strong 
kernels    .     .     . 

Average  germina- 
tion     .... 

RECORD   OF  GERMINATION  TEST 


Ear 
No.  A-1 

Ear 

No.  A-2 

Ear 
No.  A-3 

Ear 
No.  A-4 

Ear 
No.  A-5 

Ear 
No.  A-6 

Ear 
No.  A-7 

Ear 
No.  A-8 

Ear 

No.  A-9 

Ear 
No.  A-10 

Number  of  dead 
kernels    .     .     . 

Number  of  weak 
kernels    .     .     . 

Number  of  strong 
kernels    .     .     . 

Average  germina- 
tion   .... 

[79] 


EXERCISE  40 


CORN  CULTIVATION 

Statement.  Some  crops,  such  as  the  pasture  grasses,  are  grown  successfully  without  cultivating 
the  soil  in  which  they  are  growing.  Other  crops,  such  as  wheat  and  oats,  need  only  the  tillage  required 
properly  to  prepare  the  seed  bed.  A  large  number  of  important  crops,  like  corn,  cotton,  fruits,  and 
garden  vegetables,  must  have  the  soil  about  them  tilled  several  times  during  their  growing  period  if 
satisfactory  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

Object.   To  understand  the  purposes  and  proper  methods  of  cultivating  corn. 

Materials.  Kernels  of  corn;  three  large  boxes  at  least  two  feet  square  and  one  foot  deep,  with 
holes  in  the  bottom  to  provide  drainage,  and  filled  with  finely  screened  garden  soil. 

Directions.  Labelthe  boxes  i,  2,  and  3,  respectively,  and  in  each  plant  three  kernels  of  com.  Wet 
the  soil  in  each  box,  using  the  same  amoimt  of  water  for  each.  As  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  to 
work  stir  the  surface  in  box  i  to  a  depth  of  one-half  inch  and  leave  the  others  untreated.  Observe 
whether  this  makes  any  difference  in  the  time  required  for  the  plants  to  get  above  groimd.   Explain. 


Fig.  49.   The  effect  of  cultivation  on  the  growth  of  com 
The  field  at  the  left  was  plowed,  harrowed,  and  cultivated  three  times ;    yield  40  bushels  an  acre.    The  field  at  the  right  was  plowed  and 
harrowed,  but  not  cultivated ;  the  weeds  so  completely  choked  the  corn  that  the  yield'  was  less  than  half  a  bushel  to  the  acre.     (Courtesy 

Illinois  Experiment  Station) 

After  the  com  is  up  and  growing  well,  remove  all  but  one  healthy  plant  from  each  box.  Give  each 
box  the  same  amount  of  water.  Every  ten  days  after  the  plants  are  up  cultivate  the  soil  in  boxes  i 
and  2 .  Cultivate  box  i  three  inches  deep  the  first  time,  two  inches  deep  the  second  and  third  times, 
and  one  inch  deep  the  last.  Cultivate  box  2  four  inches  deep  each  time.  In  cultivating  do  not  stir 
the  soil  within  two  inches  of  the  plant.  Leave  box  3  imdisturbed,  allowing  the  weeds  to  grow.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  experiment  cease  watering  the  plants  and  allow  them  to  suffer  for  moisture  as  corn 
plants  do  in  a  drought.  Compare  the  growth  of  the  plants  as  long  as  it  is  possible  to  continue  the  ex- 
periment and  note  under  which  treatment  the  plants  best  withstood  the  effects  of  the  drought. 

Study  the  root  system  of  the  plants  in  each  box  and  note  where  the  roots  are  located  and  if  any 
roots  were  destroyed  by  any  system  of  tillage.  Remove  the  weeds  in  box  3  at  the  surface.  Weigh 
them  and  compare  this  weight  with  that  of  the  corn  stalks  cut  off  at  the  surface.  Compute  the  pro- 
portion of  moisture  used  in  corn  growth  and  weed  growth  respectively. 

Questions.  What  are  the  principal  benefits  of  cultivation  of  com  ?  In  what  ways  do  weeds  hinder 
the  growth  of  the  corn  plants  ?  When  and  how  may  weeds  be  most  easily  and  completely  destroyed  ? 

[801 


EXERCISE  40  (Continued) 

What  depth  of  mulch  is  most  effective  in  conserving  moisture  and  keeping  down  weed  growth  ?  How 
many  times  and  at  what  stages  of  growth  should  corn  be  cultivated?  At  what  stage  of  development 
should  the  crop  be  cultivated  the  last  time  or  "  laid  by  "?  What  principles  should  guide  the  farmer 
in  regard  to  the  depth  to  cultivate  corn,  (a)  when  the  plants  are  small;  (b)  when  the  plants  are 
large  and  their  roots  have  fully  permeated  the  soil ;  (c)  in  a  wet  season  when  there  is  a  rank  growth 
of  weeds  to  be  killed ;  (d)  in  a  dry  season  when  there  are  no  weeds  and  the  surface  is  covered  with 
a  mulch ;  (e)  when  a  thin  crust  is  formed  on  the  surface  ?  Name  the  principal  implements  used  in 
tilling  com  in  the  community.  How  many  acres  can  a  man  till  in  a  day,  when  the  corn  is  small? 
When  it  is  ready  to  be  "  laid  by  "  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  150-152.  Ginn  and  Company.  Duggak,  J.  F. 
Southern  Field  Crops,  pp.  158-188.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Morgan,  J.  O.  Field  Crops  for  the  Cotton  Belt, 
pp.  245-251.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Myrick,  Herbert.  The  Book  of  Corn,  pp.  123-128.  Orange  Judd 
Company.  Montgomery,  E.  G.  The  Corn  Crop,  pp.  197-214.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Mosier,  J.  G., 
and  Gustafson,  A.  F.    Bulletin  181  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  Urbana. 


[81] 


EXERCISE  41 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  WHEAT  PLANT 


Statement.  The  plant  consists  of  roots,  stems,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit.  The  relationship  of  the 
parts  and  the  difference  in  the  time  at  which  they  appear  are  strikingly  shown  in  the  case  of  the 
wheat  plant. 

Object.   To  study  the  structure  and  relationship  of  the  principq.1  parts  of  a  wheat  plant. 

Materials.   Wheat  seedlings  grown  in  the  classroom  and  a  bundle  of  full-grown  plants. 

Directions,  i.  Study  the  arrangement  and  structure  of  the  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  of  the  wheat 
seedlings  and  of  the  mature  plants.   Make  a  diagram  showing  the  position  and  relation  of  the  parts. 

Compare  the  wheat  seedlings  and  a  full-grown 
plant  to  determine  what  changes  have  occurred, 
and  what  new  structures  have  appeared.  Examine 
the  relationship  of  the  grain  formed  to  the  husks 
surrounding  it.  Explain  how  the  kernel  is  pro- 
tected.  Determine  how  the  flower  is  pollinated. 

2.  Ascertain,  by  counting,  the  average  nimiber 
of  plants  on  a  square  foot  in  a  near-by  wheat  field, 
(i)  in  the  fall,  shortly  after  germination,  and  (2)  in 
the  spring  when  the  plants  are  starting  their  growth 
again.  Explain  the  cause  for  the  difference  shown. 
Count  the  number  of  shoots  coming  from  different 
plants  and  compute  the  maximum  and  minimum 
number  produced  by  a  plant.  Note  any  evidence 
of  winter  killing  and  explain  the  cause.  Is  the 
damage  uniform  throughout  the  field?  If  not,  ex- 
plain why.  (3)  Visit  the  wheat  field  as  late  in  the 
season  as  possible  before  school  closes  and  note  the 
thickness  of  the  stand  and  the  size  of  the  heads  on 
the  different  shoots  of  a  plant.  Compare  the  size 
and  type  of  the  heads  of  different  plants.  Note  the 
difference  in  the  rankness  of  growth,  color  of  foliage, 
and  thickness  of  stand  between  different  spots  in 
the  field.  Explain  the  reason  for  any  difference  that 
may  exist.  Give  the  cause  for  any  lodging  that 
may  have  occurred.  Draw  graphs  on  the  opposite 
page,  showing  results  of  your  observations. 

Questions.  How  does  one  wheat  seed  produce  a 
number  of  plants  ?  How  does  the  habit  of  stooling 
affect  the  crop  of  wheat?  Why  is  spring  wheat  seeded  thicker  than  winter  wheat?  Why  is  the  former 
seeded  thicker  in  the  late  sown  than  early  sown  wheat  ?  Are  the  pollen  and  ovules  of  the  wheat  present 
in  the  same  flower?  How  does  the  wheat  plant  differ  from  the  corn  plant  in  this  respect?  Is  wheat 
self  fertilized  or  cross  fertilized  ?  Explain  the  difference  between  the  two. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  156-158.  Ginn  and  Company.  Carleton, 
M.  A.  The  Small  Grains,  pp.  27-32.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Dondlinger,  P.  T.  The  Book  of  Wheat, 
pp.  11-29.   Orange  Judd  Company. 

[82] 


Fig.  50.    A  young  wheat  plant  showing  the  beginning  of  an 
elaborate  system  of  roots,  stalks,  leaves,  and  heads 


EXERCISE  41  (Continued) 
A  STUDY  OF  WHEAT  GROWTH 


Seed  Sown  per 
Squake  Foot 

Number  of  Plants 
Produced 

Number  of  Shoots 
Produced 

Number  of  Heavy 
Healthy  Heads 

60 

SO 

40 

30 

20 

10 

. 

0 

Number  of  Lodged  Shoots 

Number  of  Diseased  and 
Chaffy  Heads 

Number  of  Diseased  Plants 

Number  of  Heads  Off 
Type 

20 

IS 

10 

5 

0 

83 


EXERCISE  42 


TYPES  OF  WHEAT 

Statement.  There  are  eight  types  of  wheat:  common  wheat,  club  wheat,  durum,  speltz,  emmer, 
einkorn,  polish,  and  poulard.  About  90  per  cent  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States  is  of  the 
common  type.    Common  wheat  is  divided  into  two  principal  classes :  winter  wheat  and  spring  wheat. 

Object.  To  distinguish  the  types  of  wheat 
and  to  learn  the  points  of  merit  of  each. 

Materials.  A  collection  of  heads  represent- 
ing all  the  local  types  of  wheat.  These  should 
be  collected  before  fully  ripe,  but  after  the 
grains  are  formed.  They  may  be  fastened  in 
shallow  boxes,  and  when  dry  may  be  kept  for 
class  use  for  a  long  time.  Since  the  school  is 
not  in  session  when  wheat  is  ripening,  this  col- 
lection should  be  assigned  for  home  work  for 
pupils.  Besides  the  dififerent  types,  varieties 
of  each  type  should  be  obtained. 

Directions.  Make  sketches  showing  the  sur- 
face characters  of  each  type  of  head.  In 
your  notes  describe  the  way  in  which  the 
heads  are  formed.  Remove  and  study  a 
cluster  of  kernels  (spikelet)  from  the  wheat 
head,  and  make  a  drawing  to  show  how  the 
spikelets  are  attached  to  the  stem  (rachis) 
and  how  the  kernels  are  protected.  Does  the 
number  of  kernels  vary  in  different  spikelets? 
Notice  how  the  spikelets  are  arranged  on  the 
rachis.  Count  the  number  of  kernels  in  each 
head  ;  the  nmnber  of  heads  produced  by  a  plant. 
Find  the  embryo  or  germ  in  a  wheat  kernel. 
In  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  grain  how  does 
it  compare  with  the  germ  of  the  corn  kernel  ? 

Classify  wheat  heads  which  are  examined 
on  basis  of  the  spacing  of  the  spikelets  on  the 
rachis  as  (i)  close  and  (2)  wide.  Classify  them 
on  basis  of  the  beards  as  (i)  bearded,  (2)  slightly 

bearded,  and  (3)  beardless.   Measure  the  length  of  each  head.   Note  whether  it  is  slender,  medium,  or 

club  shaped.    Fill  out  the  descriptive  blanks  given  on  the  opposite  page. 

Questions.  Name  the  types  of  wheat.  Name  two  classes  of  common  wheat.  How  many  rows  of 
spikelets  on  an  average  wheat  head  ?  Which  yields  the  more  kernels  when  planted,  a  kernel  of  com  or 
a  kernel  of  wheat  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  158-160.  Ginn  and  Company.  Carleton, 
M.  A.  The  Small  Grains,  pp.  27-87.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Hunt,  T.  F.  The  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  47- 
55.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Ten  Eyck,  A.  M.  Wheat,  p.  21.  Campbell  Soil  Culture  Publishing  Company. 
DONDLINGER,  P.  T.  The  Book  of  Wheat,  p.  II.   Orange  Judd  Company. 

r84i  ' 


¥iG.  5 1 .    Heads  of  some  of  the  principal  types  of  wheat 

Top  row  (from  left  to  right)  :  common  (karkov),  marquis,  polish,  speltz, 

emmer    (spring) ;    lower   row   (from    left   to    right) :    poulard,   einkom, 

durum,  club 


» 


Type. 


EXERCISE  42  (Continued) 
TYPES  OF  WHEAT 


Variety_ 


Head  No.  1 

Head  No.  2 

Head  No.  3 

Head  No.  4 

Head  No.  5 

Vigor  (appearance  of  vitality) 

Number  of  stalks  per  plant 

Leafiness  of  plant 

Number  of  spikelets  per  head 

Spacing  of  the  spikelets       

Length  of  the  head 

Number  of  kernels  per  head 

Total  weight  of  kernels  per  plant 

Resistance  to  disease 

Color  of  kernels 

Adaptability  to  locality 

GRADING  WHEAT 


Sample 
No.  1 

Samplf. 
No.  2 

Sample 
No.  3 

Sample 
No.  4 

Sample 
No.  5 

Sample 
No.  6 

Sample 
No.  7 

Sample 
No.  8 

Sample 
No.  9 

Sample 
No.  10 

Class      .... 

Grade     .... 

Weight  per  bushel 

Description      .     . 

t 


85 


EXERCISE   43 


THE  PROPERTIES  OF  WHEAT  WHICH  AFFECT  ITS  VALUE  AND  USE 

Statement.  The  physical  properties  of  wheat  indicate  its  milling  properties,  its  value  as  seed, 
and  its  freedom  from  disease.  The  properties  of  first  interest  to  the  miller  are  quality  and  yield  of 
flour,  which  is  indicated  by  the  color,  texture,  hardness,  and  gluten  content.  These  properties  are  also 
of  first  interest  to  the  fanner,  for  in  general  the  value  of  wheat  for  nulling  purposes  determines  its  value 
for  seed. 

Object.  To  study  those  physical  properties  of  wheat  which  are  factors  in  determining  its  food  and 
seed  value. 

Materials.  One-half  pint  sample  of  each  tj^je  of  wheat  obtainable. 

Directions.  From  the  various  samples  of  wheat  select  kernels  showing  variations  of  color,  from 
whitish  to  deep  red.   Select  kernels  with  a  bright  luster  and  glossy  in  appearance ;   also  kernels  that 

are  dull  and  bleached.  Find  kernels  that  are 
light  colored,  translucent,  and  hard.  Such 
kernels  are  described  as  clear  amber  in  color. 
Compare  different  varieties  of  wheat  as  to 
color ;   as  to  hardness ;  as  to  texture. 

In  general  the  darker  wheats  have  a  high 
gluten  content,  and  are  very  hard  and  flinty  in 
texture.  These  are  desirable  characteristics  in 
the  milling  of  wheat.  The  light-yellowish, 
translucent  kernels  are  also  hard  and  flinty 
and  even  more  desirable  in  these  respects  than 
the  darker  wheats.  Durum  wheat  is  an  ex- 
ample of  the  clear  amber-colored  kernels. 

The  color,  hardness,  and  texture  of  a  wheat 
are  indications  of  the  gluten  content.  The 
dark-colored  and  amber-colored  wheats  have 


Fig.  52.    A  comparison  of  the  size  of  the  loaf  of  bread  made  from 
the  same  quantity  of  soft  and  hard  wheat 

The  slice  at  the  left  was  cut  from  a  loaf  made  of  soft  winter  wheat ;  the 
one  at  the  right  from  a  loaf  made  from  the  same  quantity  of  hard  wheat 


a  flinty  texture,  contain  a  high  percentage  of  gluten,  and  have  high  milling  qualities. 
The  gluten  content  of  hard  and  soft  wheats  may  be  compared  as  follows : 

Place  twenty-five  grams  of  flour  from  each  in  a  cup  and  add  water  sufficient  to  make  a  dough  of  the 
proper  consistency  for  bread-making  purposes.  Work  each  to  a  uniform  dough,  cover,  and  allow  to 
stand  one  hour.  Wash  out  the  starch  with  ruiming  water,  using  a  cheesecloth  screen  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  bits  of  gluten  during  washing.  WTien  the  gluten  is  apparently  free  from  starch,  work  out  as 
much  water  as  possible  without  the  gluten's  becoming  too  sticky  to  handle,  and  dry  at  a  moderate 
temperature,  as  in  a  warming  oven,  but  do  not  burn.  Weigh  it  as  dry,  crude  gluten.  Record  the  re- 
sults in  the  blank  form. 

Repeat  the  exercise  with  other  types  of  flour  and  compare  the  results. 

Questions.  For  what  purpose  is  flour  that  is  high  in  gluten  used  ?  For  what  purpose  is  flour  that 
is  low  in  gluten  used?  Name  the  principal  hard- wheat  regions  of  the  United  States;  the  principal 
soft- wheat  regions. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  158-163.  Ginn  and  Company.  Hunt,  T.  F. 
The  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  59-60.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Dondlinger,  P.  T.  The  Book  of  Wheat,  pp.  10, 
48-49.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Lyon  and  Montgomery.  Examining  and  Grading  Grains,  pp.  9-14.  Ginn 
and  Company. 

[86] 


EXERCISE  43  (Continued) 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  WHEAT  KERNELS 


Sample  No.  1 

Sample  No.  2 

Sample  No.  3 

Sample  No.  4 

Sample  No.  5 

Hardness 

I.  Soft 

2.  Medium 

3.  Hard 

4.  \'ery  hard 

Texture  (cross  section) 

1.  Starchy 

2.  Dull  (denoting  mealy  texture) 

a    Flinty                                         

Color 

I    Whitish .     . 

2.  Yellowish 

3.  Deep  red 

4.  Clear  amber 

GLUTEN  IN  WHEAT 


Type  of  Wheat 

Amount 

Weight  after  Drying 

Dry  Crude  Gluten 

Per  Cent  of  Dry  Gluten 

[871 


EXERCISE   44 


JUDGING  WHEAT 

Statement.  The  value  of  wheat  varies  with  its  quality  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 
Those  conditions  which  determine  quality  are  considered  in  detail  in  judging  and  grading  wheat. 

Object.  To  take  up  systematically  the  points  influencing  the  commercial  grades  of  wheat  and  to 
score  samples  on  these  points. 

Materials.  A  number  of  peck  samples  of  wheat  and  a  grain  tester. 

Directions.  As  a  preliminary  step  toward  the  commercial  grading  of  wheat  and  assigning  a 
market  value  to  it,  the  student  should  learn  to  recognize  quickly  and.  accurately  the  defects  and 
impurities  of  the  grain.  He  must  also  acqviire  skill  in  determining  the  test  weight  per  bushel 
of  wheat.  Examine  each  sample  and  record  the  scores  on  the  next  page.  In  judging  the  factors 
enumerated  in  the  score  card  observe  the  following  points : 

Weight  per  bushel  (25).  Grain  is  now  purchased  by  weight  rather  than  by  volume  as  formerly,  and  from 
59  to  61  pounds,  depending  upon  the  type  of  wheat,  constitutes  a  bushel,  regardless  of  the  volume  required. 

While  the  miller  buys  wheat  by  weight  he  knows  that  the  heavy,  plump 
grains  yield  a  higher  percentage  of  flour  of  better  quality,  and,  there- 
fore, are  the  most  valuable. 

Soundness  (25).  Soundness  is  very  valuable,  for  the  flour-making 
value  of  wheat  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  soundness  of  the  kernels. 
Smutted  kernels  may  be  detected  by  the  grayish  color,  the  ease  with 
which  they  are  crushed,  the  black  powdery  internal  composition,  and 
by  the  foul  odor.  Moldy  kernels  produce  an  irritating,  unpleasant 
odor,  and  the  kernels  affected  are  readily  visible.  Sprouted  kernels 
have  a  peculiar  puffed  appearance  and  a  tiny  sprout  projects  from  the 
kernel.  Bin-burned  kernels  become  grayish  and  dull  and  later  they  are 
usually  badly  molded.  Stack-burned  kernels  become  dark,  especially 
at  the  germ.  Insect  injury  may  either  completely  destroy  the  inside  of 
the  kernel  or  merely  the  germ. 

Purity  (10).  Wheat  should  be  true  to  type,  free  from  other  grains, 
weeds,  or  trash.  Each  type  of  wheat  mills  a  little  differently  from 
another  and  requires  a  different  adjustment  of  the  machinery.  A 
mixture  of  types  that  is  not  uniform  cannot  be  milled  to  the  best 
advantage. 

Plumpness  and  size   of  kernels  (15).    Plumpness  indicates  that 
the  wheat  will  test  well.    It  is  desirable  that  the  grains  shoiild  be  of 
uniform  size  to  mill  to  the  best  advantage. 

Hardness  and  texture  (15).  Hardness  of  wheat  bears  close  relationship  to  gluten  content,  and  this,  in  turn, 
influences  the  value  of  the  flour.  Texture  determines  the  milling  qualities  of  wheat,  especially  the  percentage  of 
flour  which  can  be  obtained. 

Color  (10) .  Color  is  an  indication  of  the  hardness  and  texture  and  also  indicates  whether  or  not  it  is  bleached 
or  stack-  or  bin-burned. 

Questions.  What  causes  stack  burning?  What  causes  bin  burning?  How  may  wheat  be  treated 
to  prevent  smut  ?  Is  smut  present  in  the  wheat  of  your  community  ?  Collect  samples  of  wheat  heads 
aflflicted  with  smut  just  before  they  are  ripe.  Describe  them.  Does  there  seem  to  be  more  than  one 
kind  of  smut?   Distinguish  between  them.   Name  the  factors  that  influence  the  yield  of  wheat. 

References.  Waters,  H.J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  p.  156.  Ginn  and  Company.  Standards  for  Grading 
Grain.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Office  of  Markets  and  Rural  Organization.  Dondlinger, 
P.  T.   The  Book  of  Wheat,  pp.  36-37.   Orange  Judd  Company. 

[88] 


Fig.  53. 


Apparatus  for  making  test  weight 
of  wheat 

In  addition  to  the  scale  and  vessel  a  wooden 
straightedge  for  striking  the  vessel  is  required. 
To  avoid  error  in  making  the  test  a  funnel 
device  is  used  for  filling  the  vessel  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  grain  flows  into  it  at  a  uniform 
rate  and  from  a  constant  height 


EXERCISE  44  (Continued) 
SCORE   CARD   FOR  WHEAT 


Possible 
Score 

Sample 
No.  1 

Sample 
No.  2 

Sample 
No.  3 

Sample 
No.  4 

Sample 
No.  5 

-5 

Wheat  to  grade  No.  i  should  weigh  as  follows :  hard  red 
spring  wheat,  58  pounds ;  Durum  and  hard  red  win- 
ter wheat,  60  pounds;  soft  red  winter  and  white 
wheats,  60  pounds  per  bushel.     A  measured  bushel 
contains  2150.42  cu.  in.,  and  wheat  varies  from  less 
than  50  pounds  to  more  than  65  poimds  per  measured 
bushel.     Cut  the  sample  two  points  per  pound  defi- 
cient in  weight. 

Soundness 
Smutty  kernels 5 

Sprouted  kernels S 

Bin-  or  stack-burned 8 

25 

Insect  iniurv 2 

Total 

Cut  the  sample  two  points  for  each  per  cent  of  smutted, 
moldy,  and  sprouted  kernels.    Cut  the  sample  two 
points   for  each   pwr  cent  of  bin-  or  stack-burned 
kernels  and  one  point  for  each  per  cent  of  insect- 
damaged  kernels. 

Purity       

10 

Cut  the  sample  i  per  cent  for  each  per  cent  of  foreign 
matter,  or  kernels  decidedly  off  type. 

IS 

Cut    the   sample  one  point   for  each    2  per  cent   of 
shriveled  and  undersized  grains. 

Hardness  and  texture          

15 

Cut  the  sample  one  point  for  each  per  cent  of  soft  or 
starchy  grains. 

Color         

10 

Cut  the  sample  one  point   for  each   3   per   cent   of 
kernels  not  uniform  in  color. 

(891 


EXERCISE  45 


THE  COMMERCIAL  GRADING  OF  WHEAT 

Statement.  The  most  important  factors  in  determining  the  commercial  grades  of  wheat  are  class, 
soundness,  purity,  moisture,  content,  dockage,  and  test  weight.  In  grading  wheat,  official  standards 
have  been  prepared  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  imder  which  wheat  of  any  class 
may  be  classified  and  graded.^ 

Object.   To  study  the  factors  which  affect  the  quality  of  wheat. 

Materials.  Samples  of  wheat  from  at  least  ten  different  homes  or  that  number  of  samples  from  a 
local  mill  or  elevator. 

Directions.  Grade  the  samples  obtained,  and  in  the  following  blank  form  record  the  grades.  In 
grading  wheat  the  region  in  which  it  is  grown  largely  indicates  the  class  to  which  it  belongs.   Most  of 

the  wheat  grown  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  is  classed  as  "  Red 
Winter  " ;  in  eastern  Kansas,  Missouri,  and  in  the  south,  it  is 
Red  Winter;  Kansas  and  Nebraska  produce  Hard  Red  Winter, 
and  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas,  Hard  Red  Spring  wheat;  Durum 
wheat  is  grown  chiefly  in  western  North  and  South  Dakota  and 
Minnesota.  Wheat  of  the  Pacific  coast  states  is  Pacific  Coast 
White  or  Pacific  Coast  Red,  according  to  color. 

If  there  is  a  flour  mill  or  a  grain  elevator  in  the  town,  invite 
the  grain  buyer  to  give  one  or  two  illustrated  lessons  to  the 
students,  on  grading  wheat,  oats,  corn,  etc.,  and  then  secure 
the  privilege  of  taking  the  class  to  the  mill  or  elevator  and  using 
the  equipment  and  material  in  one  or  more  laboratory  exercises. 
Perform  these  exercises  at  the  mill  or  elevator  and  have  the 
students  do  the  grading  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher  and  the  manager. 

In  testing  the  sample  of  wheat  first  determine  the  dockage.  All  other  determinations  are  based  on 
grain  free  from  dockage.  The  materials  removed  from  dockage  include  sand,  dirt,  weed  seeds,  stems,  straw, 
chaff,  grains  other  than  wheat,  shriv- 
eled or  undeveloped  wheat,  wheat 
grains,  small  pieces  of  wheat  kernels, 
and  any  other  material  which  may 
be  readily  removed  from  wheat  by 
means  of  the  sieves  shown  in  Fig.  54. 

Commercial  wheats  are  divided 
first  into  classes,  of  which  there  are 
five :  (i)  Hard  Red  Spring,  with  three 
subclasses :  Dark  Northern,  Northern 
Spring,  and  Red  Spring;  (2)  Durum, 
divided  into  three  subclasses :  Amber 
Durum,  Dunmi,  and  Red  Durum; 
(3)  Hard  Red  Winter,  divided  into  three  subclasses :  Dark  Hard  Winter,  Hard  Winter,  and  Yellow  Hard 
Winter;  (4)  Soft  Red  Winter,  divided  into  two  subclasses:  Red  Winter  and  Red  Walla;  (5)  Common 
White,  divided  into  two  subclasses :  Hard  White  and  Soft  White. 

The   classes   and  subclasses   are   again  divided  into   grades,   of  which   there  are   sis,  designated  as 


Fig.  54.   Sieves  for  determining  dockage  of 
wheat 


Fig.  55.    Showing  the  perforations  of  the  wheat  dockage  sieves 

The  one  on  the  left  is  the  scalper  sieve,  with  circular  perforations  ^5  inch  in  diameter; 
next  is  the  buckwheat  sieve,  with  triangular  perforations  J  of  an  inch ;  the  next  is  the 
fine-seed  sieve,  with  perforations  ■j'j  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  and  the  one  on  the  right 
is  the  chess  sieve,  with  slot  perforations  -^X  i  inch.  (Courtesy  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture) 


I-,    2-,    3-,   4-,    5- 


and  6-sample  respectively.  The  specifications  for  the  numerical  grades  are  given  in 
the  table  on  the  opposite  page.  Sample  grade  comprises  all  wheats  which  do  not  fall  into  one  of  the 
numbered  grades  of  the  class  by  reason  of  unsoundness,  excessive  moisture,  garlicky  odor,  etc.  Such 
wheats  are  sold  by  sample  instead  of  by  grade. 

'  For  complete  regulations  in  reference  to  grading  commercial  grains  write  the  Bureau  of  Markets,  United  States  Department  of  ^ 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

[90] 


EXERCISE  45  {Continued) 

Questions.  In  what  class  does  the  wheat  of  your  locality  belong?  What  is  the  legal  weight  of 
wheat  per  bushel  ?  Does  the  weight  per  bushel  of  wheat  have  anything  to  do  with  the  price  when  it  is 
sold  to  the  miller  ?  How  does  weight  per  bushel  indicate  quality  ?  How  does  the  miller  determine  the 
exact  weight  per  bushel  ?   When  a  farmer  says  that  his  wheat  tests  sixty  pounds,  what  does  he  mean  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  156.  Ginn  and  Company.  Lyon  and  Mont- 
gomery. Examining  and  Grading  Grains,  pp.  17-21.  Ginn  and  Company.  Dondlinger,  P.  T.  The  Book  of 
Wheat,  pp.  223-224.  Orange  Judd  Company. 

FEDERAL  WHEAT   GRADES 


Grade 
Nlmber 

Maximum  Limits  op  — 

XlDnnDM  Weight  per  Bushel  in 
Pounds 

Percentage  of  moisture 

Percentage  of  damaged 
kernels 

Percentage  of  foreign 

material  other  than 

dockage 

Percentage 

of  wheats 

of  other 

classes 

Class 
Hard  Red 

Spring 

Classes 

Durum, 
Hard  Red 

Winter, 
Common 

White, 
and  White 
Club;  and 

subclass 
Red 

Winter 

Subclass 
Red  WaUa 

Classes 
Hard  Red 
Spring  and 

Durum 

Classes 

Hard  Red 

Winter, 

Soft  Red 

Winter, 

Common 

White,  and 

White 

Club 

Total 

Heat 

damage 

Total 

Matter 

other  than 

cereal 

grains 

Total 

I' 
2 

3 

4 
3 

58 

57 
35 
53 
50 

60 

58 
56 

54 
51 

58 

56 

54 
52 
4Q 

14.0 

14-3 
13-0 
16.0 
16.0 

13-3 
14.0 

14-3 
13-5 
15-5 

2 

4 

7 

10 

15 

O.I 
0.2 
o-S 

I.O 

30 

I 
2 

3 

5 
7 

0-5 
1.0 
2.0 
3-0 

5-0 

5 
10 
10 
10 
10 

RECORD  OF  STUDENT'S  GRADE 


Sample 

NCMBEH 

Class 

Test  Moisture 

(Weight  per 

Bushel) 

Wheat  of 

Other 

Classes 

Damaged  Kernels 

Inseparable  Foreign 
Materials 

Grade 

Total 

Heat 
damaged 

Total 

Kinghead,  corn, 

cockle,  vetch 

darnel,  wild  rose, 

either  singly  or 

combined 

'  The  wheat  in  grade  No.  i  shall  be  bright ;  the  wheat  in  grades  Nos.  1  to  4,  inclusive,  shall  be  cool  and  sweet ;  the  wheat  in 
grade  No.  s  shall  be  cool,  but  may  be  musty  or  slightly  sour. 

[91] 


EXERCISE  46 


THE  COMMERCIAL  GRADING  OF  OATS 

Statement.  In  grading  oats  the  matter  may  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  the  miller,  the 
feeder,  or  the  person  who  will  sow  the  seed.   In  the  score  card  on  the  opposite  page  emphasis  is  placed 

on  those  points  which  most  affect  the  feeding  value  of 
the  grain. 

Object.  To  examine  oats  with  reference  to  their 
commercial  value. 

Materials.  A  number  of  peck  samples  of  oats  and 
a  grain  tester.     (See  Fig.  54.) 

Directions.  Score  samples  in  accordance  with  the 
following  score  card  and  record  all  scores.  Observe  the 
following  points  under  each  heading: 

Weight  per  bushel  (35).  A  good  sample  weighing  32 
pounds  or  more  indicates  that  the  grain  is  mature,  well 
filled,  and  does  not  contain  a  high  percentage  of  hulls. 

Soundness  (20) .  Factors  principally  affecting  soundness 
are  mold,  smut,  and  sprouted  kernels. 

Color  (15).  The  color  of  the  grain  should  be  bright  and 
uniform. 

Purity  (10).  The  sample  should  be  free  from  other 
grains,  weed  seed,  chaff,  and  any  other  foreign  matter. 

Per  cent  of  hull  (20).  Good  oats  may  test  as  high  as 
30  per  cent  of  hull. 

The  commercial  grade  of  oats  is  determined  by  the 
foregoing  factors,  although  various  states  have  rules 
established  by  grain-inspection  departments  for  deter- 
mining the  grades.  Nearly  all  grading  and  inspection 
of  oats  is  in  accordance  with  the  rules  adopted  by  the 
Grain  Dealers'  National  Association.  The  rules  below 
are  those  adopted  by  this  association  for  the  grading  of 
white  oats : 

No.  I  White  Oats  shall  be  white,  dry,  sweet,  sound,  bright,  clean,  free  from  other  grain,  and  weigh  not 
less  than  32  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  2  White  Oats  shall  be  95  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet ;  shall  contain  no  more  than  i  per  cent  of  dirt 
and  I  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  29  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

Standard  White  Oats  shall  be  92  per  cent  white,  dry,  sweet ;  shall  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  dirt 
and  2  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  28  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  3  White  Oats  shall  be  sweet,  90  per  cent  white ;  shall  not  contain  more  than  3  per  cent  of  dirt  and 
5  per  cent  of  other  grain,  and  weigh  not  less  than  24  pounds  to  the  measured  bushel. 

No.  4  White  Oats  shall  be  90  per  cent  white ;  may  be  damp,  damaged,  musty,  or  very  dirty. 

Questions.  If  oats  were  being  purchased  for  feed,  which  would  be  the  more  objectionable  factor 
under  purity,  the  presence  of  chaff  or  the  presence  of  other  grains  than  oats  ?  Which  would  be  the  more 
objectionable  if  the  oats  were  being  used  for  seed  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  169-170.  Ginn  and  Company.  Hunt,  T.  F. 
The  Cereals  in  America,  p.  313.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Lyon  and  Montgomery.  Examining  and  Grading 
Grains,  pp.  51-66.   Ginn  and  Company. 

[921 


Fig.  56.   A  typical  head  of  white  spring  oats  (Swedish 
select) 


EXERCISE  46  {Continued) 
SCORE   CARD   FOR  OATS 


Possible 
Score 

Sample 
No.  1 

Sample 
No.  2 

Sample 
No.  3 

Sample 
No.  4 

Sample 
No.  5 

Weiffht  oer  bushel        

35 

The  legal  weight  of  oats  per  bushel  is  32  pounds.     Cut  the  sample 
four  points  for  each  pound  deficient. 

Soundness 

Moldy 10 

Smutted 5 

20 

• 

Sprouted S 

Total 

The  sample  should  be  bright,  dry,  and  free  from  damaged  grains. 
Cut  the  sample  one  point  for  each  per  cent  affected. 

Color 

15 

Purity 

Cut  one  point  for  each  per  cent  of  mixture,  and  one  point  for  each 
per  cent  of  foreign  matter.  . 

10 

Per  cent  of  hulls 

20 

Cut  the  sample  two  points  for  each  per  cent  above  30,  and  for  each 
point  below  add  one  point  to  the  score. 

100 

[93] 


EXERCISE   47 


THE   COMMERCIAL   GRADING  AND   SCORING  OF   BARLEY 

Statement.   In  scoring  barley  the  points  considered  are  those  affecting  the  commercial  grade,  as 
approximately  one  half  of  the  barley  produced  is  sold  on  the  market. 

Object.  To  study  the  factors  influencing  the  grade  and  quality  of  barley  and  to  become  familiar 
with  the  different  grades. 

Materials.  Peck  samples  of  barley  to  be  scored  and  a  grain  tester. 

Directions.   Score  samples  and  place  results  on  the  following  page.   Note  the  instructions  given 
below. 

Trueness  to  type  (5).    Take  100  kernels,  constituting  a  fair  sample  of  the  grain.    Divide  the  kernels 
not  true  to  type  into  three  grades.   In  the  grade  badly  off  type  cut  one-tenth  point  for  each  kernel ;  in  the  next 

grade  cut  one-tenth  point  for  each  2  kernels, 
and  in  the  best  grade  cut  one-tenth  point  for 
every  3  kernels. 

Kernel  uniformity  in  size  and  shape  (5). 
The  kernels  should  be  uniform  in  size  and 
shape.  Classify  and  cut  samples  as  in  "  True- 
ness to  type." 

Color  of  grain  (15).  Sk-rowed  barley 
should  be  yellowish  white ;  two-rowed  barley 
nearly  dead  white  in  color.  Classify  closely 
and  cut  sample  as  under  "Trueness  to  type." 

Size  of  kernels  (10).  All  kernels  should  be 
large  and  plump.  Classify  into  three  groups : 
large,  medium,  and  small  and  shriveled.  Cut 
the  sample  as  under  "Trueness  to  type." 

Texture  (10).  Barley  should  be  mealy  to 
somewhat  vitreous  in  texture.  Take  10  repre- 
sentative kernels  and  cut  each  crosswise.  Cut 
one-tenth  point  for  each  kernel  vitreous 
throughout  in  its  texture. 

Purity  (30).  Factors  chiefly  affecting 
purity  are  other  grains,  foreign  material,  dam- 
aged, smutted,  and  moldy  kernels.  For  each 
foreign  grain  cut  the  sample  one-fifth  point. 


Fig.  57.    Type  heads  of  barley 

From  left  to  right:  two-row;  common  six-row;  common  six-row  (Parallelum); 
true  six-row  (Pyramidalum).    Courtesy  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station 


Use  100  grains  in  examining  for  purity.  Also  cut  the  sample  one-fifth  point  for  each  per  cent  of  foul  material 
and  one-fifth  point  for  each  per  cent  of  damaged,  smutted,  moldy,  or  bin-burned  kernels.  Cut  the  sample 
from  one  to  ten  points  for  bad  odor. 

Weight  per  bushel  (15).  The  standard  weight  per  measured  bushel  is  48  pounds  in  most  states.  Cut  one 
point  for  each  pound  below  the  legal  weight  per  measured  bushel  in  your  state. 

Viability  (10).  Barley  should  have  a  germination  test  of  100  per  cent.  Cut  one-half  point  for  each  per  cent 
deficient  in  germination. 

The  commercial  grading  of  barley  is  influenced  by  the  above  factors,  but  the  grain-inspection  depart- 
ments of  the  various  states  provide  rules  governing  the  inspection  and  grading.  For  example,  the 
following  rules  govern  the  inspection  of  barley  in  many  states. 

No.  I  Barley  shall  be  sound,  bright,  sweet,  clean,  and  free  from  other  grain. 
No.  2  Barley  shall  be  sound,  dry,  and  of  good  color. 

No.  3  Barley  shall  include  shrunken,  stained,  dry  barley  unfit  for  No.  2  grade. 
No.  4  Barley  shall  include  tough,  musty,  dirty  barley. 

[94] 


EXERCISE  47  (Continued) 

Questions.  In  what  climate  does  barley  thrive  to  the  best  advantage  ?  Where  in  the  United  States 
is  barley  most  generally  grown?  What  country  produces  the  largest  share  of  the  world's  crop  of 
barley  ?   What  are  the  principal  uses  to  which  barley  is  put  ? 

References.  Lyon  and  Montgomery.  Examining  and  Grading  Grains,  pp  68-82.  Ginn  and  Company. 
Davis,  K.  C.  Productive  Plant  Husbandry,  pp.  212-215.  J- B.  Lippincott  Company. 

SCORE  CARD   FOR   BARLEY 


• 

Possible 
Score 

Sample 
No.  1 

Sample 
No.  2 

Sample 
No.  3 

Sample 
No.  4 

Sample 
No.  5 

Trueness  to  type 

5 

Kernel  uniformity  in  size  and  shape 

5 

Color  of  grain 

i.S 

Size  of  kernel 

10 

Texture .     . 

10 

Purity 
Other  grains 

,30 

Foreign  material 

Damaged  and  diseased  kernels      .... 
Total 

.     .     .     . 10 

Weight  per  bushel 

15 

Viability        

10 

Total 

100 

[951 


/'::'  ,  EXERCISE  48 

A  STUDY  OF  THE  SORGHUM  PLANT 

Statement.  The  yield  of  kafir,  milo,  feterita,  or  other  grain  sorghum  will  depend  greatly  on  the 
variety  chosen.  Some  varieties  require  as  much  as  one  hvmdred  and  thirty-five  days  to  mature,  while 
others  will  mature  in  less  than  one  hundred  days.  Some  varieties  are  adapted  to  poor  soil,  others  to 
rich  soil ;  some  to  high  altitudes,  others  to  low  altitudes. 

Object.   To  study  the  characteristics  of  the  varieties  of  grain  sorghums. 

Materials.  A  mixed  lot  of  sorghum  seed  containing  black-hull  kafir,  pink  kafir,  yellow  milo,  white 
milo,  feterita.  Freed  sorghum,  kaoliang,  Jerusalem  corn,  brown  durra,  shallu,  and  varieties  of  sweet 
sorghum ;  the  heads  and  stalks  of  the  different  varieties  to  be  studied ;  description  of  the  varieties 
as  contained  in  the  publications  named  in  the  references. 

Directions,  i.  From  a  mixed  lot  of  sorghum  seed  pick  out  twenty-five  grains  of  each  kind  of  grain 
sorghum.  Place  each  kind  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper.  Compare  each  kind  of  seed  with  seeds  of  a 
known  variety  and  thus  identify  each  lot.  Compare  each  kind  of  seed  with .  the  heads  of  the  different 
varieties  and  with  the  printed  descriptions.  Identify  each  lot  and  submit  the  results  to  the  instructor 
for  verification. 

2.  Fill  in  the  form  on  the  opposite  page,  giving  the  color,  relative  size  and  shape  of  seed,  length 
and  shape  of  heads,  and,  if  growing  in  the  field,  height  of  stalk,  number  of  leaves  per  stalk,  relative 
juiciness  and  sweetness  of  the  stems,  and  the  date  of  ripening. 

3.  Write  a  statement  of  the  principal  uses  to  which  two  selected  types  of  sorghums  studied  are 
put,  how  they  are  grown,  and  the  kind  of  season  and  soil  which  is  best  suited  to  them. 

Questions.  What  are  the  leading  varieties  of  sorghimis  in  your  community?  Which  is  the  more 
drought-resistant,  corn  or  sorghum?  Can  you  explain  why?  Describe  the  climate  to  which  the  sor- 
ghums are  best  adapted.  How  are  sorghums  planted  ?  How  cultivated ?  How  harvested ?  How  utilized? 

References.  Waters,  H.J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  pp.  223-230.  Borman,  T.  A.  Sorghums,  The  Kansas 
Farmer  Company,  Topeka.  Bailey,  L.  H.  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  p.  384.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company.   Bulletin  218  (1Q18),  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


Fig.  58.    Types  of  sorghum  heads 
From  left  to  right:  kafir;  sweet  sorghum;  milo  maize;  feterita.     (Courtesy  of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College) 

[96] 


EXERCISE  48  {Continued) 
VARIETIES  OF  SORGHUMS 


Sample 
No.  1 

SVMPLE 

No.  2 

Sample 
No.  3 

Sample 
No.  4 

Sample 
No.  5 

Sample 
No.  6 

Color  of  seed 

Size  of  seed  (small  —  medium  —  large)      ...... 

ShaDe  of  seed 

Shape  of  head 

Average  number  of  leaves  per  stalk       

Juiciness  and  sweetness  of  stems       

Variety 

[97] 


EXERCISE  49 


Fig.  59     Sectional    view   of   a 
high-yielding  Kafir  head   with 
long  main  stem  and  large  seed- 
bearing  capacity 


Fig.  6o.    Sectional  view  of   the  in- 
terior of  a  low-yielding  Kafir  head 
with    short    main    stem    and    light- 
yielding  seed-bearing  stems 


JUDGING  GRAIN  SORGHUMS 

Statement.   Sorghums  are  similar  to  corn  in  many  respects,  each  producing  an  abundance  of  both 
grain  and  forage.   Sorghums  are  especially  valuable  in  their  ability  to  withstand  severe  droughts, 

thus  being  enabled  to  grow  in  the  semiarid  regions  of  the  United  States. 
A  knowledge  of  what  constitutes  a  good  head  of  sorghum  for  seed  is  im- 
portant and  is  the  first  step  in  successful 
sorghum  production. 

Object.   To  judge  standard  varieties  of 
grain  sorghums. 

Materials.   Samples  to   be   scored   and 
descriptive  sheet  on  the  following  page. 

Directions,  i.  Arrange  an  exhibit  of  ten 
heads.  Score  one  head  at  a  time  while 
learning  to  use  the  score  card.  Beginning 
with  head  No.  i,  estimate  the  score  that 
should  be  given  for  each  point.  When  judg- 
ing single  heads,  the  score  for  uniformity  will 
be  based  on  the  degree  to  which  the  head 
conforms  to  the  most  common  type  in  the 
exhibit  and  the  type  of  the  variety  it  rep- 
resents. Repeat  the  estimate  for  each  of  the 
ten  heads  and  find  the  average  score  for 
them.    Compactness  of  the  head  is  an  important  consideration.     To  determine  this  quality  cut  away 

the   branches    on    two   sides   of   the   head   as   shown   in   the   illustrations 

and   note   carefully   the   length   of   the   main   stem   and  the   seed-bearing 

stems,  and  how  thickly  and  uniformly  the  seeds 

are  set  on. 

2.  After  scoring  single  heads  each  member  of 

the  class  should  arrange  a  ten-head  exhibit.   Then 

the  entire  display  should  be  judged  by  each  pupil, 

using  the  ten-head  exhibit  as  a  imit.    Total  the 

values  and  rank  the  exhibits. 

Questions.   What  are  sorghums  that  have  an 

abimdance   of   sweet   juice   called?  Name  some 

varieties  of  sorghum  that  do  not  contain  sweet 

juice.    In  your  community  is  sorghum  grown  for 

sirup,  for  grain,  for  forage,  or  for  the  brush?   Why 

are  sorghums  grown  in  preference  to  corn  in  parts 

of  the  semiarid  regions  of  the  Great  Plains  area? 
What  is  the  average  yield  of  grain  of  the  varieties  of  sorghmns  produced 
in  your  community? 

References.  Waters,  H.J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  pp.  223-228.  Ginnand 
Company.  Bqrman,  T.  A.  Sorghums.  The  Kansas  Farmer  Company,  Topeka. 
Montgomery,  E.  G.  The  Corn  Crops,  pp.  279-328.  The  Macmillan  Company. 
Livingston,  G.   Field  Crop  Production,  pp.  228-239.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

98 


Fig.  61.    The   interior  of   a 

dwarf  Milo  head  of  desirable 

form 


Fig.  62.    Interior  of  a  good 

head  of  Feterita 

All  photographs  on  this  page  from 

"  Sorghums :    Sure-money    Crop," 

Kansas  Farmer,  Topeka 


EXERCISE  49  {Continued) 
DESCRIPTION  SHEET  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  SORGHUMS* 


• 


Common  name 

Names  sometimes  used . 


1.  Stalk: 

Tall,  medium  short,  dwarf. 

Thick,  mediimi,  thin. 

Peduncles :  erect,  inclined,  recurved. 

Internodes :  long,  medium,  short. 

Stooling :  abundant,  not  abimdant. 

Pith :  soft,  fibrous. 

Juice :  abundant,  not  abundant,  sweet,  slightly  sweet. 

2.  Leaf: 

Number  per  stalk 

Wide,  medium,  narrow. 
Thick,  thin,  long,  short. 
Sheath :  overlapping  —  little,  much. 

3.  Head: 

General  color :  black,  dark  red,  light  red,  brown,  yellow,  green,  white. 

Length  in  inches 

Width  in  inches 

Length  equals times  width. 

Very  open,  open,  compact,  very  compact. 
Flattened,  equally  developed  on  all  sides,  cylindrical. 
Spherical,  ovoid,  obovoid,  umbelliform. 

Rachis :  erect,  drooping as  long  as  panicle. 

Branches :  short,  long,  very  long,  erect,  tips  drooping,  drooping,  strongly  drooping. 

4.  Spikelet : 

Elliptic,  oval,  obovate,  broadly  obovate. 

5.  Glumes : 

Color :  black,  straw,  gray,  greenish. 

Spreading,  not  spreading. 

Short,  long,  large,  open,  covering  seed. 

Wrinkled. 

Pubescent,  slightly  pubescent. 

6.  Seed: 

•    Brown,  red,  white,  ivory  white,  white  with  spots,  yellow,  reddish  yellow. 
Conical,  spherical,  cylindrical,  round,  flattened,  much  flattened. 

7.  Lemma:  awned;  awnless. 

8.  Characters  for  identification. 


From  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 


f99I 


EXERCISE   50 


A  STUDY  OF  LEGUMES 


Fig.  63.  A  typical  young  red  clover  plant 

Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 


Statement.   Wherever  legumes  thrive,  and  wherever  many  members  of  this  great  plant  family 
grow  wild,  the  farmers  are  almost  certain  to  be  prosperous.   Wherever  legumes  do  not  thrive  farming 

is  likely  to  be  conducted  under  great  difficulties  and  is  generally 
unprofitable. 

Object.  To  study  the  legumes  adapted  to  the  community  and 
the  uses  to  which  they  are  put. 

Materials.   Collecting  case ;  spade ;  access  to  the  farms  of  the 
neighborhood. 

Directions,  i .  Early  in  the  fall  or  late  in  the  spring  take  the 
class  to  the  coimtry  and  study  the  growth  habits  of  both  wild  and 
cultivated  forms  of  legumes  present.  Have  the  students  make  a 
collection  of  representative  plants  of  each  for  detailed  study  in  the 
laboratory.  Make  careful  note  of  the  types  of  soil  upon  which  each 
is  found  growing  most  abundantly  and  also  the  types  upon  which 
each  thrives  least  well.  Make  note  of  the  place  of  the  legume  in 
the  crop  rotation  and 
explain  the  reason  for 
the  rotations  followed 
by  the  farmers. 

2.  In  the  laboratory 
make  a  detailed  study 
of  the  more  important 

types  of  legumes  collected,  compare  their  leaves,  stems,  seed 

pods,  seeds,  roots,  and  root  tubercles. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  legumes,  domestic  and  wild, 
found  growing  in  the  neighborhood,  together  with  a  state- 
ment of  the  value  of  such  as  have  economic  importance. 
Name  the  more  important  cultivated  legumes  of  the  United 
States  and  state  the  principal  uses  to  which  each  is  put. 

4.  Explain  in  detail  how  you  would  proceed  to  secure  a 
stand  of  red  clover  and  alfalfa,  and  how  you  would  manage 
each  to  secure  the  best  results. 

Questions.  What  do  you  consider  the  two  greatest 
values  of  legumes?  Give  reason  for  each  answer.  What 
legume  is  of  most  importance  in  the  local  community  and 
why  ?  What  other  legumes  than  those  grown  locally  should 
be  introduced?  At  what  place  in  the  rotation  does  the 
legume  usually  come?  What  crop  usually  precedes  the 
legume  in  the  local  farm  practice  ?  At  what  stage  of  devel- 
opment would  you  cut  red  clover  for  hay  ?  At  what  stage 
would  you  harvest  alfalfa  for  the  largest  yield  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  78-79,  204-206.  Ginn  and  Company.  Burkett, 
C.  W.  Soils,  pp.  143-152.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Hopkins,  C.  G.  Soil  FertiUty  and  Permanent  Agriculture, 
pp.  210-214.   Ginn  and  Company. 

[1001 


Fig.  64.    A  tj^aical  young  alfalfa  plant 

Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 


EXERCISE   51 


DTOCULATION  OF  SOILS  FOR  LEGUMES 


Fig.  65.    Taking  soil  from  an  alfalfa  field  with  which 

to  inoculate  soil  upon  which  alfalfa  has  not  been 

grown  successfully 


Statemfcat,   Attaehcd  to  t|ip  roots  of  growing  legumes  are  many  nodules,  or  tubercles,  which  were 
caused  by  bacteria.   These  bacteria  penetrate  the  roots  of  the  plant  and  draw  part  of  their  sustenance 

from  the  legumes  and  part  from  the  air.  They  have  the 
power  to  use  free,  or  pure,  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  change 
its  form  so  that  the  legume  can  use  it.  The  legume  in  turn 
absorbs  the  substance  of  the  nodules  and  is  nourished 
thereby.  In  this  indirect  way  legumes  are  able  to  use  free 
nitrogen. 

Object.  To  ascertain  whether  the  presence  of  bacteria 
is  necessary  for  the  best  growth  of  legumes. 

Materials.  Roots  of  as  many  legumes  as  can  be  ob- 
tained; soils  from  an  alfalfa  or  red  or  sweet  clover  field 
where  bacteria  are  present ;  alfalfa  seed ;  clean  fine  sand ; 
a  one-gallon  or  two-gallon  pail;  flowerpots  or  tin  cans; 
formalin ;  distilled  rain  water. 

Directions.  Fill  the  two  flowerpots  or  tin  cans  with  clean 
fine  sand.  Heat  the  sand  for  half  an  hour  at  a  temperature 
which  will  destroy  all  life.  Place  10  cubic  centimeters  of 
formalin  in  50 
cubic  centime- 
ters of  distilled  water  and  place  alfalfa  or  red  clover  seeds 

in  the  solution  for  five  minutes.   Remove  and  wash  with 

distilled  water  and  plant  the  seeds  in  the  two  pots  of  soil 

previously  heated. 

Water  one  pot  with  distilled  water  and  the  other  with 

water  prepared  by  filtering  distilled  or  rain  water  through  a 

pail  half  full  of  soil  from  an  alfalfa  or  clover  field  contain- 
ing plants  upon  which  root  tubercles  have  developed.   Stir 

the  soU  and  water  thoroughly  and  after  the  soil  has  settled 

pour  off  the  clear  water  and  use  it.  Use  fresh  soil  each 

time  that  water  is  to  be  prepared.  Let  the  plants  grow 

until  a  difference  is  apparent  in  their  growth.   Remove  the 

plants  and  examine  their  root  systems. 

Questions.  What  do  bacteria  supply  to  the  plants? 

From  whence  is  it  obtained?   Suppose  the  clover  crop  is 

removed  from  the  field  and  only  the  roots  left,  has  much 

fertility  been  added  to  the  soil  ?   Do  you  think  that  clovers 

in  the  rotation  will  solve  the  soil-fertility  problem  if  the 

crops  are  largely  removed  and  only  the  roots  and  stubble 

are  returned? 

References.  Waters, H.J.   Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp. 
78-79,205-206.   Ginn  and  Company.  Burkett,  C.W.  Soils,  pp. 
143-152.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Hopkins  C.  G.  Soil  Fertility     ^^^^^    ^^^^^^1^^  ^^  ^^^^^^  „^  ^^^  ,„„t,  „f  ^j^, 
and  Permanent  Agriculture,  pp.  210-214.    Ginn  and  Company.  cowpea 

[102] 


I 


EXERCISE   52 
A  STUDY  OF  THE  POTATO 


Fig.  67.    Desirable  and  undesirable  types  of  tubers 

Note  the  sunken  eyes,  peaked  ends,  and  irregular  forms  of  the  lower 
line  of  tubers  in  contrast  with  the  regular  outline  and  smooth  sur- 
face of  those  in  the  upper  row.     (Courtesy  of  the  Pennsylvania 
State  College) 


Statement.   Some  plants  store  most  of  their  food  in  the  seed,  as  in  the  case  of  wheat  or  corn ;  others 
in  the  stem,  as  the  sugar  cane ;  others  in  the  leaf,  as  the  cabbage ;  others  in  the  roots,  as  the  sugar  beet  or 

the  sweet  potato ;  others  in  enlarged  underground 
stems  called  tubers,  as  in  the  Irish  potato. 

Object.  To  study  the  growth  and  habits  of  the 
potato  and  to  learn  how  to  select  and  care  for  seed 
potatoes. 

Materials.  A  supply  of  potato  tubers ;  a  box  or 
pot  of  potatoes  growing  from  cuttings  planted 
four  weeks  previously ;  some  potatoes  which  have 
been  allowed  to  sprout  in  a  damp,  partially  lighted 
cellar  or  the  school  basement. 

.  Directions,  i .  Make  a  study  of  buds  (eyes)  and 
determine  if  there  is  a  scale  or  leaf-like  structure 
at  the  sides  of  the  buds;  note  its  position;  note 
whether  the  buds  are  arranged  in  any  regular  order ; 
whether  they  are  equally  abundant  at  both  ends 
of  the  potato.  Make  a  cross  section  of  the  potato 
and  observe  the  smaller  cells  which  represent  the 
woody  stem  tissues.  Note  the  arrangement  of  the 
starch  grains  in  the  tubers.   Examine  the  sprouts 

and  the  planted  potato  cuttings;  determine,  and  make  sketches  showing,  how  new  potato  plants 

grow  from  old  ones,  and  where  the  young  plant  obtains  its  sustenance. 

2.  Keep  one  lot  of  half  a  dozen  tubers  in  a  warm  cellar  so  that  by  planting  time  they  have  produced 
long  sprouts  and  keep  another  lot  of  similar  tubers  in  a  cool  cellar  so  they  will  remain  dormant.  Expose 
the  dormant  tubers  to  the  light  until 
short  sprouts  appear.  Plant  the  lots 
alongside  of  each  other  and  note  which 
produces  the  earliest  plants,  the  most 
vigorous  growth,  and  the  largest  yield. 

3.  Make  a  collection  of  the  varieties 
of  potatoes  commonly  grown  in  the 
community  and  grade  them  according 
to  the  commercial  grades.  Have  stu- 
dents judge  them  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing score  card. 

Questions.  Are  the  tubers  used  for 
planting  in  your  locality  home-grown  ? 
If  not,  where  do  they  come  from  and  why  are  they  the  best  to  plant?  Do  the  farmers  use  certified 
potato  seed  and  why?  Where  does  the  potato  come  in  the  local  crop  rotation  and  why?  What  fertili- 
zers are  best  for  potatoes  in  your  locality  and  what  amount  should  be  applied  per  acre  ? 

References.  Potato  Culture,  Extension  circular  45,  Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College,  Pennsyl- 
vania. Commercial  Handling,  Grading,  and  Marketing  of  Potatoes,  Farmers'  Bulletin,  753,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

[104] 


Fig.  68.    Potatoes  at  the  time  of  planting 

The  proper  condition  of  the  tubers  at  the  time  of  planting  is  shown  by  the  speci- 
mens on  the  plate  at  the  right ;  the  vitality  of  the  tubers  on  the  plate  at  the  left  has 
been  lowered  by  the  growth  of  the  sprouts.     (Courtesy  of  the  Pennsylvania  State 

College) 


EXERCISE  52  (Continued)  ' 
SCORE   CARD   FOR  POTATOES 


Perfect 
Score 

Students'  Score 

Uniformitv  of  exhibit          

20 

Conformity  of  type 

10 

Shaoe  of  tubers          .          

15 

Size  of  tubers         .          

15 

Eyes                       

5 

Skin 

5 

10 

Soundness    ...          

10 

10 

Total 

100 

fiosi 


EXERCISE   53 

IMPURITY  OF  FARM  SEEDS 

Statement.  The  value  of  a  seed  depends  first  upon  its  vitality.  If  it  will  not  grow  well,  then  all  other 
considerations  are  of  no  value.  Next  comes  the  quality  of  the  seed.  Pure-bred  and  pedigreed  seeds 
are  always  to  be  preferred,  but  we  have  not  begun  to  pedigree  clovers  and  grasses  generally.  However, 
something  of  quality  may  be  judged  by  the  size,  brightness,  and  uniformity  of  the  seeds.  The  amoimt  of 
impurities  affects  their  value  in  two  ways.  Cracked  and  broken  seeds,  trash,  and  chaff  add  to  the  bulk 
and  cause  the  farmer  to  pay  more  for  the  seed  he  actually  obtains.  Much  more  harmful,  however,  are 
the  weed  seeds  acquired  with  impure  seed,  because  they  add  to  the  cost  of  the  seed  purchased  and 
cause  much  damage  to  the  cultivated  crops,  or  else  entail  expense  in  keeping  the  weeds  in  check. 

Object.  To  determine  the  comparative  value  of  seed  samples. 

Materials.   Commercial  seeds  of  red  and  alsike  clover,  alfalfa,  timothy,  etc. 

Directions.  Determine  by  actual  calculation  from  the  samples  the  relative  amounts  of  dirt  in  the 
seed,  the  amount  of  weed  seed,  and  the  amount  of  seed  of  the  kind  supposed  to  have  been  bought. 
Then  count  out  loo  grains  of  seed  from  the  weediest  sample  and  loo  grains  from  the  purest  sample 
of  the  same  kind  of  seed  and  plant  both  lots  to  determine  whether  more  or  less  of  the  weedy  seed 
than  of  the  pure  seed  is  growing  seed. 

Questions.  Can  you  determine  what  kinds  of  weed  seeds  are  present  in  the  above  samples  ?  What 
are  the  objections  against  buying  and  using  seed  which  contains  weed  seed  ?  Which  sample  contains 
dirt  ?  What  is  the  actual  cost  per  bushel  of  pure  seed  obtained  from  the  poor  seed  purchased  because 
of  its  low  price? 

References.  Hillman,  T.  H.  "  Testing  Farm  Seeds  in  the  Home  and  the  Rural  Schools,"  Farmers'  Bulletin 
428,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Davis,  K.  C.  Productive  Plant  Husbandry,  pp.  50-53.  J.  B. 
Lippincott  Company. 


Fig.  69.     Some  noxious  weed  seeds  found  in  farm  seeds 

o,  sand  burr;  J,  wildcat;  c,  chess;  rf,  darnel;  c,  quack  grass ;/,  dock ;  x,  black  bindweed ;  A,  Russian  thistle ;  »',  com  cockle;  j,  white  campion; 

k,  bladder  campion ;  I,  night-flowering  catchfly ;  m,  cow  cockle ;  »,  pennycress ;  o,  field  peppergrass ;  p,  large-fruited  false  flax ;  q,  smali-f ruited 

false  flaK ;  r,  ball  mustard ;  s,  black  mustard ;  /,  English  charlock.     Enlarged  and  natural  size 

[106] 


% 


EXERCISE  53  {Continued) 
IMPURITY  OF  SEEDS 


Sample 
No.l 

Sample 
No.  2 

Sample 
No.  3 

Sample 
No.  4 

Sample 
No.  5 

Sample 
No.  6 

Sample 
No.  7 

Sample 
No.  8 

Sample 
No.  9 

Sample 
No.  10 

Total  number  of 
seeds  in  sample 

Per  cent  of  dirt    . 

Per  cent  of  dam- 
aged seeds     .     . 

Per  cent  of  weed 
seeds    .... 

Per  cent  of  good 
seed    .... 

Per  cent  of  vitality 

[1071 


EXERCISE   54 


Fig.  70.    Flower  of  upland  cotton,  showing  sepals,  petals,  and  stigma 
(Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture) 


A  STUDY  OF  THE  COTTON  PLANT 

Statement.   Cotton  is  the  world's  most  important  fiber  crop.     The  cotton  belt  of  the  United 
States  produces  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  world's  supply  of  this  staple. 

Object.  To  learn  something  of  the  con- 
ditions of  growth,  form,  structure,  and 
characteristics  of  the  cotton  plant. 

Directions.  Carefully  remove  the  soil 
from  the  base  of  a  growing  plant  containing 
squares,  flowers,  green  ])olls,  and  open  bolls. 
Note  the  number,  depth,  and  size  of  the 
roots.  What  is  the  function  of  the  tap 
root  ?  Of  the  fibrous  roots  ?  What  would 
be  the  effect  of  deep,  close  cultivation  at 
this  time  ?  Note  the  size,  height,  and  color 
of  the  central  stem.  Describe  its  structure. 
Study  carefully  the  branches  and  distin- 
guish between  the  fruiting  and  vegetative 
branches.  Of  what  use  are  the  vegetative 
branches  ?  At  what  place  on  the  main  stem  are  the  longest  branches  produced  ?  The  shortest  ?  How 
are  the  leaves  arranged  on  the  stem?  Are  there  differences  in  the  shape,  size,  and  arrangement 
of  the  leaves  on  the  fruiting  branches  and  the  vegetative 
branches?  Describe  the  cotton  flower  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing outline :  (i)  calyx — size,  shape;  (2)  corolla — color, 
size,  shape ;  (3)  petals  —  number,  separated  or  united ; 
(4)  stamens  —  number,  position ;  (5)  pistils  — ■  number, 
position.  Make  drawings  as  follows  :  (i)  front  view  of  bud 
showing  bracts  and  calyx ;  (2)  ventral  view  of  flower  with 
bracts  removed  showing  arrangement  of  calyx,  calyx  lobes, 
and  petals ;  (3)  draw  a  cross  section  of  a  half-grown  boU 
showing  each  part ;  (4)  make  a  collection  of  open  bolls  and 

classify  them  according  to 
their  size,  shape,  number 
and  size  of  seed,  amount  and 
length  of  fiber,  and  propor- 
tion of  fiber  to  seed ;  (5) 
make  a  collection  of  the 
plants  and  open  bolls  of  the 
principal  varieties  of  cotton 
growing  in  the  community 
and  compare  them  for  earli- 
ness,  productiveness  of  lint 

and  seed,  and  for  length  of  fiber.    Write  a  description  of  each,  laying 
emphasis  on  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  variety,  and 
kind  of  soil  to  which  each  is  best  adapted. 
Questions.   Which  are  the  principal  cotton-producing  states  of  the  Union?   What  is  the  highest 
yield  of  cotton  per  acre  in  the  localitv  and  what  is  the  average  yield  ?  What  is  the  lowest  yield  ?    What 

.       '  .    [108] 


Fig.  71.     Stamens   and    stigma 
.   Egyptian  cotton 

(Courtesy  of  the  Bureau  of   Plant  In- 
dustry,  United   States   Department   of 
Agriculture) 


Fig.  72.    A  cluster  of  bolls  from  a  prolific  plant  in 
different  stages  of  development 

(Courtesy  of  Ed.  Kosch,  San  Marcos,  Texas) 


J 


EXERCISE  54  (Continued) 

makes  the  difference  in  the  yield?  What  insects  are  most  injurious  to  cotton  and  what  are  the  most 
feasible  ways  of  combating  them  ?  State  in  writing  how  the  injuries  of  the  cotton  boll  weevil  may 
be  prevented  and  indicate  which  of  the  ways  suggested  is  more  generally  used  in  the  neighborhood. 
Has  the  presence  of  this  insect  changed  to  any  degree  the  cropping  systems  of  the  south  ?  Have  these 
changes  been  advantageous  and  in  what  way  and  why?  State  in  detail  how  the  yield  of  cotton  in  the 
neighborhood  may  be  increased. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  177-185.  Ginn  and  Company.  Bergen  and 
Caldwell.  Introduction  to  Botany,  p.  313.  Ginn  and  Company.  Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops.  The 
Macraillan  Company. 


^ 


L 


[109 


EXERCISE   55 


Fig.  73.    A  poor  cotton  plant 

A  late  unproductive  plant ;  the  joints  are  long 

and  the  bolls  are  far  out  from  the  center  or 

base  of  the  stalk ;  the  limbs  have  few  joints 

and  few  bolls 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  COTTON 

Statement.   Cotton,  like  all  other  domestic  plants,  is  susceptible  of  improvement,  and  very  rapid 
strides  have  been  made  in  this  direction  in  recent  years.   As  a  result  of  natural  variation,  selectfon,  and 

breeding  there  are  many  types,  varieties,  and  strains  of  cotton,  just 
as  there  are  of  corn,  apples,  and  strawberries.  Much  of  this  im- 
provement has  been  made  by  selecting  for  propagation  the  best 
of  each  season's  crop.  To  make  such  selection  intelligently,  the 
breeder  must  know  what  characteristics  are  of  greatest  importance, 
and  must  be  able  readily  to  detect  these  characteristics  in  the  field. 

Object.  To  develop  further  the  cotton  industry  by  learning 
how  to  select  the  best  cotton  seed  for  planting. 

Material.  A  field  of  cotton  ready  to  pick;  a  small  balance; 
pocket  comb ;  small  ruler  graduated  to  tf  inch. 

Directions,  i.  Select  five  early- and  five  late-maturing  plants.  Com- 
pare the  two  groups  of  plants  as  regards  (a)  the  height  at  which  the 
first  leaves  are  borne  on  the  main  stem ;  (b)  the  length  of  the  internode 
on  the  fruiting  hmbs ;  (c)  the  position  of  the  bolls,  whether  mostly  at 
the  top  of  the  plant  and  on  the  outer  end  of  the  branches,  or  whether 
they  are  borne  mostly  in  the  central  and  lower  portions  of  the  plant ; 
((f)  leafiness. 

2.  Select  twenty-five  of  the  least  productive  plants  and  twenty-five 
of  the  most  productive  plants  in  the 'field.    Pick  the  cotton  from  each  of 

the  two  groups  of  plants  separately  and  weigh  it.    How  many  plants  of  each  type  would  be  required  to  give 

a  yield  of  1500  pounds  of  seed  cotton  or  one  bale  of  500  pounds 

of  lint? 

3.  What  is  the  average  number  of  bolls  per  plant  for  each 
group  ?  Pick  the  cotton  from  100  large  bolls  and  weigh  it.  Do 
likewise  for  100  small  bolls.  How  many  bolls  of  each  class  would 
it  take  to  yield  1500  pounds  of  seed  cotton? 

4.  Select  five  fuUy-open  bolls,  which  in  opening  have  per- 
mitted the  walls  or  burrs  to  curl  backward  to  the  extent  of 
allowing  the  seed  cotton  to  be  easily  blown  out  by  the  wind. 
Select  also  five  fully-open  bolls  in  which  the  burrs  have  not 
curled  backward  "sufliciently  to  make  picking  easy.  Is  there 
any  relation  between  the  extent  to  which  the  burrs  curl  back- 
ward and  the  thickness  of  the  burr  ? 

5.  Select  bolls  showing  each  of  the  following  defects :  small- 
size  spots  on  the  burr  due  to  disease,  imperfectly  developed 
lobes. 

6.  Pick  the  cotton  from  ten  boUs  from  each  of  five  different 
plants,  keeping  the  five  lots  separate.  Place  these  lots  of  cotton 
in  the  sun  and  allow  them  to  dry.  Remove  the  seed  from  the 
lint  by  hand.  For  each  lot  carefully  weigh  the  seed  and  lint 
separately.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  percehtage  of  lint 
produced  by  the  different  plants  ? 

7 .  By  means  of  the  hands  carefully  separate  the  lint  on  a  seed 
of  cotton  into  two  equal  parts  without  removing  the  lint  from 
the  seed.    Carefully  comb  the  two  portions  of  lint  out  straight 
in  opposite  directions  and  determine  its  length.   Compare  different  plants  as  regards  the  length  of  lint; 
the  color  of  the  lint,  and  the  strength  of  the  fiber.     From  which  should  seed  be  selected  ? 

[1101 


Fig.  74.    A  productive  cotton  plant,  the  sort  from 
which  to  select  the  seed  for  next  year's  crop 


EXERCISE  55  (Continued) 

Questions.  What  are  the  leading  varieties  of  cotton  of  the  country?  Of  the  local  community? 
What  varieties  are  best  adapted  to  rich  soils?  Which  to  poor  soils?  How  many  planters  in  the 
neighborhood  use  pedigreed  seed?  How  many  grow  a  distinct  variety?  How  many  make  field 
selections  of  seed?  Describe  the  method  oL selecting  seed  for  the  largest  yield,  naming  the  charac 
teristics  of  stalk,  stem,  leaf,  boll,  lint,  and  seed  most  desirable. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  185-186.  Ginn  and  Company.  Duggar, 
J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Bulletin  222 ;  Farmers' Btd- 
letin  SQi-  Cotton  score  card  published  by  the  state  agricultural  college ;  state  cotton  growers'  association,  if  there 
is  one;  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  Circular  66;  Farmers'  Bulletin  501.  Ofi&ce  of  .Experiment  Stations  Bulletin, 
33.  PP-  211,  212. 

SCORE   CARD   FOR  THE   COTTON  PLANT* 


Score 


PLART  (Vigorous,  Stocky) — as  Points 

Size :  medium  to  large  as  influenced  by  soil,  location,  season,  and  variety 

Form:  symmetrical,  spreading,  conical,  height ;  and  spread  according  to  soil,  etc 

Stalk  :  minimum  amount  of  wood  in  proportion  to  fruit 

Branches :  springing  from  base,  strong,  vigorous,  in  pairs  short-jointed,  inclined  upward 

Head :  well-branchol  and  filled,  fruiteid  umformly 

FRUITING  — 24  Points 

Bolls :  large,  abundant,  uniformly  developed,  plump,  sound,  firm,  well-rounded,  apex  obtuse,  singly  or  in 
clusters     

Number  of  boUs :  according  to  variety,  soil,  and  season 

BoUs  per  plant:  thin  uplands,  10-20;  fertile  uplands,  20-25 ;  "  bottoms,"  so- 100;  special  selection,  100- 
Soo 

Bolls  per  pound  of  seed  cotton :  large,  40-60;  medium,  60-7S  ;  small,  80-110 

Character  of  bolls :  number  of  loclis  3  to  s  ;  kind  of  sepals;  retention  of  cotton 

Opening  of  bolls :  uniform  including  top  crop,  classify  as  good,  medium,  poor 

YIELD  (Standard  i  Bale  per  Acre)  —  30  Points 

Seed  cotton  (estimated  by  average  plant,  distance  of  planting,  per  cent  of  stand,  plants  per  acre) :  thin  up- 
lands, 10,000;  fertile  uplands,  6,500;  "  bottoms,"  4,500;  distance  of  plants  3J  by  1}  feet,  4J  by  i\ 
feet,  4}  by  2  feet,  respectively 

Per  cent  lint :  not  less  than  30,  standard  33  to  35 

Seeds :  30-50  per  boll,  large,  plump,  easily  delinted,  color  according  to  variety ;  germination  not  less  than 
g5  per  cent 

QUALITY   AND   CHARACTER   OF   LINT  — 21  Points 

Strength :  tensile  strain  good,  even  throughout  length 

Length :  common  standards  for  upland,  short  J  to  i  inch,  premiimi  i  A  to  li  inches ;  long  staple,  i  A  inches 

and  better 

Fineness :  fibers  soft,  silky,  and  pliable,  responsive  to  touch 

Uniformity :  all  fibers  of  equal  length,  strength,  fineness 

Purity :  color  dead  white ;  fiber  free  from  stain,  dirt,  and  trash 


Possible      Student's     Corrected 


'  For  plants  departing  only  slightly  from  the  variety  standard  as  to  size,  a  cut  of  i  to  ij  points  should  be  made.  If  the  depar- 
ture is  very  marked,  a  cut  of  3  points  may  be  made.  For  excessively  long  joints  and  poorly  placed  and  developed  branches,  cut  a 
maximum  of  2  to  5.  For  slight  defects  in  these  respects,  cut  from  2J  to  3  pxiints.  For  a  plant  which  develops  a  single  central  stem 
bearing  numerous  horizontal  fruiting  branches,  allow  five  points  as  the  perfect  score.  When  the  head  is  full,  on  account  of  the 
superabundance  of  long  upright  branches,  cut  a  maximum  of  three  points.  As  these  faults  are  less  pronounced,  reduce  the  cuts 
until  for  slight  defects  on  these  accounts  a  minimum  cut  of  one  half  point  should  be  given.  Adapted  from  directions  published 
by  the  Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture. 


I 


[111; 


EXERCISE  56 


GRADING  COTTON 

Statement.   Cotton  is  graded  on  the  market  on  the  basis  of  the  length,  body,  color,  and  strength 
of  the  fiber,  and  also  on  its  purity  or  freedom  from  foreign  substances.     Fixed  grades  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
by  the  cotton  exchanges  of  the  country  on  which  all  com- 
mercial cotton  is  bought  and  sold. 

Materials.  Samples  of  fiber  of  different  grades,  copy  of 
the  Cotton  Standards  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Directions,  i .  In  examining  the  fiber,  attention  should 
be  given  not  only  to  the  length  and  purity  of  the  sample, 
but  also  to  the  maturity  and  strength  of  the  fiber  and  its 
color.  Examine  also  the  body  of  the  fiber  and  observe 
whether  it  is  firm  and  solid  or  fluffy. 

2.  If  there  is  a  cotton  gin  or  warehouse  in  the  vicinity 
ask  the  cotton  buyer  to  give  the  students  one  or  more 
demonstrations  in  cotton  grading  and  then  take  the  class 
to  the  gin  or  warehouse  and  give  the  members  one  or  more 
laboratory  exercises  in  grading  under  joint  supervision  of 
the  teacher  and  buyer. 

The  grading  exercises  should  be  made  to  embrace  all  the 
types  and  grades  commonly  produced  in  the  country  and 
especially  all  those  usually  grown  in  the  neighborhood. 
Compare  the  market  prices  of  the  different  grades  and 
estimate  the  proportion  of  the  normal  crop  of  the  commu- 
nity that  will  fall  into  each  class.  This  work  should  be 
of  recognizing  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  each  of  the 
on  them 


rVmcrican-Kiowa  cotlon  fibers 


The  four  principal  commercial  types  are  shown  as  fol- 
lows: a,  sea  island;  6.  Egyptian;  c,  long  staple  upland; 
d,  short  staple  upland ;  the  fibers  are  combed  to  show 
the  relative  lengths  of  the  staples.  (Courtesy  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Plant  Industry,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture) 


continued  until  the  students  are  capable 
principal  grades  of  cotton  and  of  placing 
their  approximate  market  value. 

Questions.  How  many  grades  of  cotton  are 
recognized  in  the  United  States  standard  ?  Name 
them  in  the  order  of  their  commercial  value. 
What  grades  are  recognized  by  the  cotton  ex- 
changes above  this  list  ?  What  grades  are  recognized 
by  them  below  this  list?  Ascertain  the  market 
value  of  the  principal  grades  produced  in  the  com- 
munity. Of  what  grade  is  most  of  the  cotton 
produced  in  the  community  ?  How  may  the  plant- 
ers most  easily  and  profitably  improve  the  grade  of 
their  cotton  ? 


Fig.  76.  Baled  cotton  being  taken  to  market 


References.  Duggar,  J.  F.  Southern  Field  Crops. 
The  Macmillan  Company.  Cotton  score  card  pub- 
lished by  the  State  agricultural  college;  Department  Bulletin  62 ;  Farmers'  Bulletin  J02,  J64,  §gi.  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  Bulletin  33,  pp.  351-360,  381-384;  United  States  Department  Agriculture,  Office  of 
Markets  and  Rural  Organizations,  S.  R.  A.  i. 

[112] 


i 


EXERCISE   57 


CROP   ROTATION 

Statement.  Growing  one  kind  of  crop  on  the  land  year  after  year  favors  the  accumulation  of  insects, 
plant  diseases,  and  weeds  injurious  to  that  crop.  Also  some  crops,  as  corn,  are  classed  as  "  exhaustive," 
while  other  crops,  as  legumes  and  pasture  grasses,  to  a  limited  extent,  are  considered  to  rest  the  land 
upon  which  they  are  grown  and  are  classed  as  "  restoratives."  By  alternating  exhaustive  and  restora- 
tive crops  the  land  is  not  so  rapidly  depleted  as  by  growing  exhaustive  crops  only.    The  labor  load 

of  the  farm  is  better  distributed 
throughout  the  year  by  growing  a 


variety  of  crops 
one  or  two. 


instead  of  only 


Fig.  77.   The  effect  of  crop  rotation  on  the  yield  of  com 

At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  a  test  of  the  value  of  crop  rotation  has  been  in  progress 
for  twenty-five  years.  The  crib  at  the  left  shows  the  average  amount  of  com  {20.3  bushels) 
an  acre  produced  when  grown  in  com  continuously,  and  the  crib  on  the  right  shows  the  amount 
of  corn  (34  bushels)  produced  by  an  acre  in  a  rotation  of  com,  wheat,  and  clover.  The 
figures  give  an  average  production  for  twenty-five  years 


Object.  To  study  systems  of 
crop  rotation  as  applied  to  the  com- 
mtmity  and  to  plan  systems  of  ro- 
tation which  will  give  a  balanced 
agriculture. 

Materials.  A  diagram  of  the 
home  farm,  or  one  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, showing  the  number  of  fields 
and  area  of  each ;  a  statement  of 
the  nature  and  type  of  soil  and  the 
kind  of  farming  practiced. 

Directions,  i.  In  planning  a 
rotation  decide  first  which  are  the 
main  crops,  and  which  secondary 
or  restorative  crops  will  best  fit  in  with  the  main  crops  and  produce  a  well-balanced  cropping  system. 
Study  the  most  successful  rotations  of  the  neighborhood  and  apply  one  such  to  the  farm  for  which  you 
are  planning  a  rotation.  Make  a  drawing,  dividing  the  farm  into  as  many  units  as  there  are  crops  in 
the  rotation  chosen.  For  convenience  each  field  should  be  numbered  in  laying  out  the  system.  Some 
such  form  as  that  shown  on  the  opposite  page  may  be  helpful.  The  first  column  contains  four  units, 
the  same  as  the  number  of  crops  in  the  rotation  chosen.  A  unit  may  consist  of  any  number  of  fields, 
but  all  units  should  be  as  nearly  the  same  size  as  possible. 

2.  Plan  two-,  three-,  four-,  and  five-year  rotations  respectively,  using  the  crops  grown  in  your  com- 
munity. Plan  a  desirable  rotation  for  a  general  Uvestock  farm,  using  corn,  oats,  and  clover,  and  plan 
a  rotation  system  for  a  grain  farm,  using  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  clover,  in  which  only  the  grain  and  the 
seed  of  the  clover  are  sold.  Plan  a  rotation  in  which  cotton,  cowpeas,  and  corn  are  the  principal  crops. 
Fill  in  the  forms  on  the  opposite  page.  Discuss  each  rotation  planned  and  explain  the  reason  for  the 
arrangement  of  crops. 

Questions.   In  planning  a  crop  rotation  show  how  excessive  spring  plowing  may  be    avoided. 
Explain  how  a  crop  rotation  will  help  to  control  weeds.   Explain  how  it  will  help  to  control  diseases. 
Name  two  plant  diseases  that  are  controlled  by  crop  rotation.   Name  the  important  restorative  crops 
'  of  the  United  States.   Which  of  these  are  adapted  to  the  locality  in  which  you  live? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  pp.  86-87, 164,  287,  291,  310.  Ginn  and  Company. 
Hopkins,  C.  G.  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,  pp.  318,  362,  389.  Ginn  and  Company.  Burkett, 
C.  W.  Soils,  pp.  266-282.  Orange  Judd  Company.  Warren,  G.  F.  Farm  Management,  pp.  402-416.  The 
Macmillan  Company. 

[1141 


EXERCISE  57  {Continued) 
CROP  ROTATION  FOR  GENER.\L  FARMING 


Cnit  Number 

Fields  Number 

Total  Acres 

First  Year 

Second  Year 

Third  Y'ear 

Fourth  Year 

I 

I  and  2 

34 

Wheat 

Clover 

Corn 

Oats 

3,4,  and  5 

1 

41 

Oats 

Wheal 

Clover 

Corn 

3 

6,  9,  and  11 

41 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Clover 

4 

7,  8,  and  10 

36 

Clover 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

ROTATIONS   PLANNED   BY   STUDENTS 


3 
4 
I 

2 
3 

4 


[US] 


EXERCISE  58 


THE  SILO  AND   SILAGE 

Object.  To  understand  the  construction  and  function  of  the  silo  and  the  manner  of  preparing 
silage,  and  the  method  by  which  it  keeps.     Also  to  learn  how  this  material  is  used. 


^^^^^^^^ 

--«*gl 

w                 ^II^^^^^^^^^H 

■■■1 

pt 

1 

^"'  -'^^^^^^ 

■ 

pv 

.._jr  ^" '  '^'  i"^  p"^^"*^ 

piHm 

i 

MH"^       .Ui'*l'-           ^.mmm 

■|g|^M| 

ijh— 

^^^H  In:^^^"*^  ^^^.^ji^jsyr^SJIKgitv' 

1 

i           -^ 

^H 

V  . 

'  J 

^^^ 

m 

HH^MM'i^b.T'^'  .  -   ' 

^ 

-.-,...-..„,                '    - 

.    '  .  . -'i? 

Fig.  78.    All  classes  of  live  stock  eat  silage  with  a  relish 


Materials.  A  neighborhood  silo 
and  apparatus  for  filling  it ;  sales- 
man's descriptions  of  the  different 
kinds  of  silos;  the  textbook  data 
upon  quantities  of  corn  and  other 
material  required  to  fill  silos  of 
given  size,  and  upon  the  amount  of 
silage  needed  to  feed  different  kinds 
of  farm  animals. 

Directions.  The  class  should 
visit  one  or  more  good  silos  under 
the  guidance  of  the  teacher  and 
the  farmer  who  owns  the  silo,  when 
the  silo  is  being  filled  and  later 
when  the  silage  is  being  fed. 

1.  The  points  to  be  studied  in  the  first  visit  should  include  the  structure  and  size  of  the  silo,  its 
relation  to  the  barn  and  to  the  stock  to  be  fed,  material  used  for  silage,  the  stage  of  maturity  when 
harvested,  how  cut  and  loaded,  the  arrangement  of  wagon  racks,  methods  of  unloading,  cutting,  and 
filling  the  silo.  All  the  members  of  the  class  should  be  permitted  to  go  into  the  silo  and  to  help  distribute 
the  silage  and  tramp  it  around  the 
edges.  Make  a  complete  record  of 
all  the  above  facts  and  note  any 
particulars  in  which  improvements 
might  be  made  with  profit. 

2.  On  the  occasion  of  the  second 

visit   the  points  to  be   considered 

should  include  condition  of  silage, 

number   of  inches  of   silage   used 

each  day,  amount  of  silage  that  is 

lost  by  decay,  where  the  loss  occurs, 

the  changes  in  temperature,  color, 

and  odor  which  have  occiurred  in 

silage  between  the  time  when  the  fresh  material  was  placed  in  the  silo  and  the  time  when  it  is  fed. 

Note  the  relish  with  which  the  animals  eat  the  silage.     And  how  much  each  kind  eats  daily- 
Questions.   Ascertain  the  number  of  animals  of  each  class  on  each  farm  visited  and  calculate  the 

amount  of  silage  required  to  feed  them  throughout  the  season  ;  the  dimension  of  the  silo  or  silos  neces- 
sary to  contain  the  feed.  Estimate  the  number  of  acres  of  corn,  sorghum,  or  kafir  required  to  supply 
this  amount  of  fresh  material.  What  would  be  the  approximate  cost  of  erecting  such  a  silo  or  silos  and 
what  would  it  cost  to  fill  them? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  248-259.  Ginn  and  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S. 
Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  pp.  298-300.  Webb  Publishing  Company.  Wilson  and  Warburton, 
Field  Crops,  pp.  91-92.   Webb  PubUshing  Company. 

[116 


Fig.  79.    Before  the  silo  came  into  general  use,  one  of  the  principal  drudgeries 
of  feeding  stock  was  digging  corn  fodder  out  of  the  snow 


i 


EXERCISE   59 
HOW  TO  PLANT  A  TREE 


Marks    indicate 

where    to   prune 

main  trunk  and 

branckes 


New  ground  line 
._  Nursery  ground 
•r^^i^      line 

'  Line  to  which  roots 
should  be  pruned 


Statement.  Nature  if  ]et  alone  maintains  a  balance  between  the  root  area  and  the  top  area  of 
growing  plants.   In  transplanting  trees  this  balance  is  disturbed,  because  most  of  the  roots  are  cut  off 

when  the  tree  is  removed  from  its  growing  place.   Unless  the  top  is  cut 
back  to  correspond  to  the  new  root  system  the  tree  will  usually  die. 

Object.   To  learn  how  to  plant  trees  properly. 

Materials.   Trees  to  be  planted ;  planting  board ;   sharp  knife ; 
shovel  or  spade. 

Directions,   i.  Drive  stakes  at  the  exact  place  where  each  tree  is 

to  be  planted.   Before  digging  the  hole  stake  the  planting  board  in 

place   as   shown   in  Fig.  83. 

Remove  the  planting  board 

and  stake,  marking  the  loca- 
tion of  the  tree,  and  dig  the 

hole.   The    hole    should    be 

large  enough  to  contain  all 

the   roots  without   crowding 

and  deep  enough  to  set  the 

tree   about   an    inch    deeper 

than  it  grew  in  the  nursery. 

Prune    from    the    roots    any 

broken,  straggling,   or  inter- 
lacing    parts,     replace     the 

board,  and  place  the  tree  in 

the  hole.   One  person  should 

hold  the  tree  in  the  proper 

position  while  dirt  is  filled  in  by  another.    Top  soil  should  go  in  first 
re^Iar  curve  indica^swhere'the  roots  should    and  should  be  tramped  firmly  about  the  roots  as  the  hole  is  filled.   ' 

After  the  dirt  is  in  place  and  has  been  firmed,  a  little  loose  soil 

should  be  spread  over  the  top  to  prevent  the  surface  from  baking. 

The  top  of  the  tree  needs  to  be  cut  back  in  proportion  to  the  severity  with  which  the  roots  are 

pruned,  but  the  shaping  of  the  top  may  be  left  until 

the  first  year's  pnming. 

„      „      -,,    ^.     ,       ,  2.  One  tree  should  be  properly  root-pruned  and 

Fig.  82.    Planting  board  .  f     t-      j  f 

™    ,,.,,,,,    .     ,      .     ,  ,      ^ ,,       ,     ^ .        ,      branch-pruned  m  the  presence  of  the  class,  then 

1  he  board  is  held  firmly  in  place  by  stakes  at  the  end  notches ;  the  '^  .' 

middle  notch  indicates  where  to  dig  the  hole  and  later  just  where  to    the  pruned  tree  and  an  unpruncd  onc  Compared  in 

set  the  tree  in  the  hole  j        i  1  i  ^i  11  i  •   1         -n    i- 

order  to  make  clear  the  problems  which  will  face 
the  two  trees  when  they  are  planted.  From  the  work  and  discussions  write  a  statement  of  the  proper 
procedure  in  planting  a  young  fruit  tree.  Make  diagrams  showing  depth  of  planting,  preparation  of 
hole  for  the  tree,  and  appearance  of  the  properly  pruned  tree. 

3.  Invite  the  local  nurserjonan  or  an  experienced  orchardist  of  the  neighborhood  to  assist  in  the 
demonstration  and  if  possible  have  each  student  plant  fruit  trees  of  different  kinds  and  ages  so  as  to 
bring  out  the  essential  points  in  root  and  top  pruning  and  in  the  formation  of  the  head  best  adapted 
to  the  local  climate.  Also  require  the  students  to  plant  a  suflS.cient  number  of  ornamentals  to  be- 
come familiar  with  the  habits  of  this  group  of  shrubs  and  trees. 

[118] 


Fig.  80.   Method  of  pruning  trees  before 
planting 

The  tree  at  the  left  is  a  one-year-old  whip 
and  is  cut  back  to  form  the  head ;  the  one  at 
the  right  is  a  two-year-old  and  needs  to  be 
top-pruned  as  well  as  root-pruned.   The  ir- 


Fig.  81.    The  right  and  wrong  wajrs  of  cutting 
off  branches 

At  the  left  the  right  way ;  the  next  branch  was  cut 
too  slanting ;  the  next  too  far  from  the  bud ;  the  one 
on  the  right,  too  near  the  bud.  Courtesy  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry 


EXERCISE  59   (Continued) 

4.  An  improvement  project  should  be  planned  to  follow  this  exercise  in  which  the  student  will  be 
encouraged  to  undertake  the  better  planting  of  his  father's  home  grounds,  the  school  campus,  a  portion 
of  the  dty  park  or  some  neglected  part  of  the 
town.  In  such  a  project  the  practical  details 
pertaining  to  the  care  of  trees  and  shrubs  after 
they  have  been  planted,  so  that  they  may  be 
carried  safely  through  the  critical  period  caused 
by  a  drought  in  the  first  or  second  summer,  will 
be  emphasized.  Also  the  proper  cultivation  of 
the  plants  to  insure  their  rapid  development  will 
be  considered. 

Questions.  In  what  maimer  does  it  damage 
a  tree  to  leave  the  roots  exposed  to  the  air 
before  planting?  How  is  such  exposure  largely 
prevented  by  the  nursery  men  in  shipping  trees  ? 
What  are  the  advantages  of  a  planting  board  ? 
Why  is  it  important  to  pack  fine  soil  firmly 
about  the  roots?  Why  is  it  advisable  to  cut 
back  the  top  of  a  tree  at  planting  time?  How 
close  together  should  apple  trees  be  planted? 
peach  trees?  pear  trees?  How  many  trees  of 
each  are  planted  on  an  acre  ? 


Fig.  83.   The  use  of  the  planting  board 

The  board  was  removed  while  the  hole  was  being  dug  and  was  replaced. 

When  the  tree  was  placed  in  the  notch  it  occupied  the  proper  position. 

The  dirt    should   be   carefully  worked  among  the  roots.     (Courtesy   of 

Purdue  University) 


References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  268.  Ginn  and  Company.  Wilkinson,  A.  E. 
The  Apple,  pp.  71-75.  Ginn  and  Company.  Waugh,  F.  A.  The  American  Apple  Orchard,  pp.  40-41.  Orange 
Judd  Company. 


119 


EXERCISE   60 


Fig.  84.   A  two-year-old  apple  tree  before  and  after  pruning 

The  picture  on  the  right  shows  the  tree  after  pruning ;  note  the 
even  distribution  of  scaffold  limbs ;  an  excellent  type  of  an  open- 
headed  tree 


PRUNING  THE  APPLE  TREE 

Statement.  All  fruit  trees  require  to  be  pruned  from  time  to  time  for  the  production  of  fruit  of 
the  highest  quahty.   It  is  by  removing  the  excessive  wood  growth  through  judicious  pruning  that  the 

fruitfulness  of  the  tree  is  increased.  Also  the  size  and 
quality  of  the  fruit  are  improved,  and  insects  and  dis- 
eases are  more  readily  controlled. 

Object.  To  learn  how  to  prime  bearing  apple 
trees. 

Materials.  A  neglected  orchard ;  a  pruning  saw ; 
a  pair  of  hand  shears ;  a  ladder ;  a  pail  of  paint  and 
a  brush  for  each  squad. 

Directions.  For  this  work  a  visit  should  be  made 
to  a  neglected  orchard  or  an  orchard  which  is  in  need 
of  bei^g  pruned.  In  working  over  old  trees  the  dead 
and  diseased  limbs  should  be  removed  first.  Then 
cut  out  all  twisted,  weak,  and  crossing  or  rubbing 
branches  as  well  as  those  which  grow  back  through 
the  center.  The  ideal  tree  should  have  a  low  head, 
and  an  open  top  with  the  bearing  wood  distributed  throughout.  Old  and  neglected  trees  usually  re- 
quire heading  back.  Cut  each  upright  limb  in  the  top  of  the  tree  back  to  a  strong  limb  spreading 
toward  the  outside  of  the  tree.  Thin  the 
remaining  limbs,  so  that  the  sunlight  may 
have  access  to  all  portions  of  the  tree,  by 
removing  the  weaker  limbs  and  leaving 
the  best  fruit-bearing  wood.  The  removal 
of  large  limbs  hastens  the  work  of  reno- 
vation, but  the  large  scars  are  slower  in 
healing  than  the  small  ones.  If  the  trees 
are  devoid  of  fruit-bearing  wood  along  the 
main  limbs,  head  back  all  healthy  water 
sprouts  to  about  three  inches  in  length 
and  in  this  way  convert  them  into  fruit 
spurs.  In  removing  limbs  cut  close  to  the 
remaining  limb,  leaving  a  smooth  surface, 
sloping  so  as  to  shed  water.  Paint  all  cuts 
larger  than  one  inch  in  diameter  to  pre- 
vent infection  of  wood  which  is  exposed.  j 

If  the  same  orchard  can  be  used  for  several  years,  an  excellent  opportunity  is  offered  for  studying 
the  effect  of  pruning  on  the  character  of  the  fruit  and  the  vigor  of  the  trees. 

(Questions.  What  are  the  objects  of  pruning  ?  Do  water  sprouts  have  any  value  ?  Why  is  it  neces- 
sary to  remove  the  diseased  wood?  Why  should  the  wotmds  be  painted?  How  can  excessive  height 
growth  be  remedied?    Describe  in  detail  how  to  renovate  a  neglected  orchard. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.   Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  268-270.   Ginn  and  Company.   Wilkinson, 
A.  E.   The  Apple,  pp.  83-90.    Ginn  and  Company.   Waugh,  F.  A.  The  American  Apple  Orchard,  pp.  n-gi.  % 
Orange  Judd  Company. 

[1201 


Fig.  83.   Before  and  after  pruning 

The  tree  at  the  left  is  a  well-cared-for  tree  before  being  pruned ;    on  the  right  is 

the  same  tree  after  it  has  been  pruned.    Notice  the  limbs  on  the  ground  at  the 

left  of  the  pruned  tree  which  were  removed.    Note  also  how  much  more  open 

the  top  is  and  that  all  interlacing  limbs  have  been  removed 


EXERCISE   61 


HARVESTING  AND   GRADING  APPLES 

Statement.  The  proper  time  for  picking  fall  and  winter  apples  is  when  the  fruit  has  reached  full 
size  and  is  well  colored,  but  before  it  has  begun  to  soften.  Neither  immature  nor  over-ripe  fruit  keeps 
well  in  storage,  and  its  eating  qualities  are  not  up  to  standard.  Success  in  orcharding  will  in  consider- 
able degree  depend  upon  the  skill  and  intelligence  used  in  picking,  grading,  and  packing  the  fruit. 

Object.   To  learn  how  to  harvest  and  grade  apples. 

Materials.  Ladders ;  picking  sacks ;  orchard  crates ;  grading  table ;  sizing  board ;  a  well-sprayed 
orchard  laden  with  ripe  fruit. 

Directions.  Picking.  Divide  the  class  into  squads  of  four  each  and  assign  each  squad  to  a 
block  of  trees.  Have  two  students  pick  all  the  fruit  that  can  be  reached  from  the  ground,  have  a 
third  pick  from  the  ladder,  and  the  squad  leader  direct  the  work  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher  and 

the  proprietor  of  the  orchard.  In, 
picking  the  fruit  raise  and  turn  each 
apple  slightly  so  as  to  avoid  pull- 
ing out  the  stem  or  breaking  off  the 
fruit  spur.  If  the  stem  is  pulled 
out,  the  opening  into  the  flesh  of 
the  apple  is  likely  to  become  in- 
fected with  the  organisms  which 
cause  it  to  decay.  The  fruit  spurs 
are  the  source  of  future  crops  and 
should  be  carefully  guarded  against 
injury.  Handle  the  fruit  carefully 
to  avoid  bruising,  and  as  soon  as 
a  sack  is  filled  its  contents  should 
be  carefully  emptied  into  boxes. 

Grading.  The  apples  are  next 
placed  on  the  grading  table,  where 
they  are  graded  for  size,  color,  and 
blemishes.  First  remove  all  injured 
or  diseased  fruits.  Then,  using  the 
sizing  board,  which  is  graduated  to 
one-eighth  inch,  separate  the  apples  into  the  various  sizes.  Learn  the  standard  of  sizes  demanded  by 
the  general  market  or  for  the  special  market  for  which  you  are  grading  and  make  the  classification 
conform  to  their  requirements.  These  should,  in  turn,  be  graded  for  color  so  that  each  lot  will  consist 
of  perfect  specimens  that  are  uniform  in  size  and  color.  After  the  student's  eye  is  trained,  the  sizing 
board  may  be  discarded  and  the  grading  be  done  by  hand. 

Questions.  Why  should  the  fruit  be  handled  carefully  ?  Of  what  value  are  the  fruit  spurs  ?  W^a^ 
is  the  proper  time  for  picking  apples?  Which  separate  from  the  spurs  more  readily,  the  ripened  or  tho 
immature  specimens  ?*  How  does  the  grading  for  color  affect  the  appearance  of  the  apples  ?  Why  should 
the  diseased  and  injured  fruits  be  removed?   Why  should  apples  be  graded  into  the  different  sizes? 

References.  Waugh,  F.A.  The  American  Apple  Orchard,  pp.  149-165.  Orange  Judd  Company.  FletcherJ 
S.  W.  How  to  Make  a  Fruit  Garden,  pp.  131-135  (old).   Doubleday,  Page  Company.   Wilkinson,  A.  E.J 
The  Apple,  pp.  270-271.    Ginn  and  Company.   Waters,  H.  J.    Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  274-275.    Gir 
and  Company. 

[1221 


Fig.  86.   Picking  apples 
No  successful  substitute  for  hand  picking  has  been  invented  in  harvesting  apples,  cot- 
ton, £ind  com.    The  sack  is  the  best  receptacle  for  the  picked  fruit 


EXERCISE   62 


PACKING  APPLES 

Statement.  Fruit  which  reaches  the  consumer  in  perfect  condition  demands  the  highest  price.  To 
obtain  this  price  requires  not  only  that  good  healthy  fruit  be  grown  but  that  it  be  so  marketed  that  it 
is  not  bruised  and  that  it  is  uniform  in  size,  color,  and  quality.  This  means  that  apples  must  be  care- 
fully packed. 

Object.   To  learn  how  to  pack  apples  in  boxes  and  barrels. 

Materials.  Several  bushels  of  apples  graded  for  size  and  color,  as  explained  under  Grading,  and 
standard-sized  apple  boxes  and  barrels. 

Directions.  Boxing.  First  line  the  box  with  paper,  folding  it  at  the  bottom  to  prevent  tearing. 
Refer  to  the  table  for  the  style  of  pack  that  is  adapted  to  the  size  to  be  packed.   The  3-2  pack,  which 

is  adapted  to  the  greatest  number 
of  commercial  sizes,  and  the  one 
best  adapted  to  general  require- 
ments, is  here  described.  The 
principles  involved,  however,  are 
the  same  as  for  other  diagonal 
packs.  Place  an  apple,  stem  end 
down,  in  each  of  the  two  lower 
Corners  of  the  box.  A  third  apple 
is  placed  midway  between  these 
two.  The  location  of  the  third 
apple  is  important,  since  if  incor- 
rectly placed  it  will  destroy  the 
regularity  of  alignment.  In  the  two  spaces  formed  by  the  three  apples  of  the  first  row  two  other  apples 
are  placed.  These  should  slip  part  way  between  the  first  apples,  but  should  not  slip  into  line  with  them. 
The  next  rows  are  alternately  comprised  of  three  and  two  apples  each  until  the  layer  is  completed. 
These  should  fit  snugly  and  the  rows  should  be  straight.  Two  apples  are  used  for  the  first  row  of 
the  second  layer,  and  they  should  be  placed  in  the  open  spaces  in  the  first  row  of  the  first  layer. 
The  layer  is  then  packed  as  described  for  the  first.  The  first,  third,  and  fifth  layers  are  started  with 
three  apples,  and  the  second  and  fourth  are  started  with  two.  The  last  layer  is  packed  stem  end  up 
since  this  end  bruises  less  readily  than  the  blossom  end.  A  well-packed  box  should  have  regular  rows 
that  fit  firmly.  The  apples  at  the  ends  should  be  even  with  the  ends  of  the  box  and  the  apples  in  the 
middle  should  be  slightly  higher.  This  bulge  aids  in  maintaining  a  tight  pack.  The  papers  should  now 
be  folded  over  and  the  cover  nailed  on,  using  a  cleat  at  either  end.  The  packed  boxes  should  be  turned 
over  and  the  top  removed  to  show  the  appearance  of  the  pack. 

Barrelling.  Follow  the  approved  practices  of  the  community  and  whenever  possible  work  under 
the  direction  of  an  experienced  fruit  packer. 

Questions.  Why  should  the  box  be  lined  with  paper?  Why  should  the  paper  be  folded?  Is  the 
location  of  the  apples  in  the  first  row  important  ?  Why  ?  How  many  apples  in  the  first  row  of  the  first, 
third,  and  fifth  layers?  of  the  second  and  fourth  layers?  Why  is  there  less  injury  in  the  diagonal 
than  in  the  straight  pack  ?  How  high  should  the  apples  be  at  the  end  of  the  box  ?  What  is  the  value  of 
the  bulge  in  the  center  ?   Describe  the  procedure  in  packing  apples  in  barrels. 


Fig.  87.   The  standard  apple  packs 

At  the  left  is  shown  the  3-2  box  pack ;    in  the  center,  a  straight  box  pack ;    at  the  right, 

a  good  barrel  pack 


References.  Wilkinson,  A.  E.    The  Apple,  pp.  293-312. 
American  Apple  Orchard,  pp.  165-171.  Orange  Judd  Company. 

[1241 


Ginn  and  Company.   Waugh,  F.  A.    Thej 


I 


EXERCISE  62  (Continued) 
BOX-PACKING  TABLE 


Diameter 

Style 

Position 

Number 

af  inches 

3-2  diagonal 

Flat 

163 

jf  inches 

3-2  diagonal 

Flat 

150 

2J  inches 

3-2  diagonal 

Flat 

I2S 

3  inches 

2-2  diagonal 

Flat 

112 

3J  inches 

2-2  diagonal 

Flat 

104 

3i  inches 

2-2  diagonal 

Flat 

96 

3f  inches 

2-2  diagonal 

Flat 

80 

35  inches 

2-2  diagonal 

Flat 

72 

[1251 


PART    IV. 


INSECTS   AND    PLANT    DISEASES   AND  THEIR 
CONTROL 


EXERCISE   63 


THE   STRUCTURE  OF  AN  INSECT 


Fig.  92.    Frontal  view 
of  head 


Statement.  Some  insects  are  beneficial,  others  injurious,  yet  others  are  both  helpful  and  harmful, 
and  yet  others  are  apparently  of  no  direct  importance.  Man  has  been  able  to  meet  and  utilize  these 
relations  largely  by  first  learning  how  they  carry  on  their  life 
activities,  such  as  feeding,  breathing,  and  reproduction. 
Since  all  of  these  activities  are  directly  related  to  certain 
structural  features  of  the  insect,  a  knowledge  of  its  structure 
is  essential. 

Object.   To  study  the  structure  of  the  common  grass- 
hopper. 

Materials.   A  common  grasshopper ;  hand  lens ;  drawing 
pencils  and  eraser. 

Directions.  Study  the  body  covering  and  note  that  it  is 
rigid  and  is  composed  of  a  series  of  ringlike  units  called  segments.  These  seg- 
ments differ  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  the  similar  ones  are  grouped 
together  to  form  the  three  body  regions,  head,  thorax, 
and  abdomen. 

I.  The  head  appears  to  comprise  but  one  segment, 
but  in  reality  six  are  fused  together  to  form  it.  Two 
slender  antennae  extend  from  the  upper  part  of  the  head.  Two  compound 
eyes  and  three  simple  eyes  (ocelli)  are  also  easily  observed.  The  mouth  parts 
are  of  the  biting  type  and  composed  of  four  distinct  superimposed  sets, 
namely,  upper  Up,  or  labriun ;  a  pair  of  jaws,  or  mandibles ;  a  lower  pair  of 
more  complex  jaws  or  maxillae ;  and  the  lower  lip  or  labium. 
The  maxillae  and  the  labium  bear  each  a  pair  of  jointed  ap- 
pendages known  as  palpi. 

2.  The  thorax,  or  middle-body  region,  is  composed  of  three 
segments,  each  of  which  bears  a  pair  of  legs.  The  first  segment 
(prothorax)  is  covered  on  the  top  and  the  two  sides  by  a  heavy, 
thickened,  saddle-shaped  shield.  Each  of  the  next  two  segments  (mesothorax 
and  metathorax)  bears  a  pair  of  wings.  A  diagonal  line  (suture)  extends 
across  the  side  of  each  of  these  last  two  segments,  making  them  appear  to  be 
four  segments  instead  of  two.  Just  above  the  base  of  the  middle  leg  and  in  the 


Fig.  88. 


Dorsal  view 
cricket 


of 


Fig.  89.  Lateral 

view  of  head 


Fig.  90.  Lateral  view 
of  thorax 


Fig.  93.  Mouth  parts 


Fig.  91.   Lateral  view  of  abdomen 
[1261 


a,  labrum ;  b,  mandibles ; 
ilia: ;  d,  labium 


c,  max- 


EXERCISE  63  (Continued) 

groove  between  the  meso-  and  metathorax  is  a  slitlike  opening  (spiracle),  one  of  the  breathing  pores. 
Aside  from  certain  inconspicuous  basal  parts,  each  leg  consists  of  a  femur  (or  thigh),  a  tibia,  and  a 
tarsus  (or  foot). 

3.  Ten  segments  are  easily  counted  in  the  abdomen.  The  basal  segment  bears  a  pair  of  conspicuous, 
oval  auditory  organs,  at  the  front  edge  of  each  of  which  is  a  spiracle.  Each  of  the  following  segments 
bears  a  pair  of  lateral  spiracles.  In  the  female  the  abdomen  terminates  in  two  pairs  of  short,  pointed 
organs  which  constitute  the  major  part  of  the  egg-laying  organ  (ovipositor) ,  while  in  the  male  the  end 
of  the  abdomen  is  rather  blunt  and  bears  a  pair  of  short  movable  plates  (claspers) . 

4.  Make  drawings  of  a  grasshopper  similar  to  those  shown  of  the  cricket. 

References.  Sanderson,  E.  D.,  and  Jackson,  C.  F.  Elementary  Entomology,  p.  372.  Ginn  and  Company, 
CoMSTOCK,  J.  H.  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects,  p.  701.   Comstock  Publishing  Company. 

THE  GRASSHOPPER 

Make  drawings  of  the  parts  indicated  below,  similar  to  the  drawings  of  the  cricket. 

1 .  Face  view :  antennae  ;  compound  eyes ;  simple  eyes ;  mouth  parts. 

2.  Mouth  parts:  labium;  mandible;  maxilla;  labrum;  palpi. 

3.  Lateral  view  of  thorax  with  wings  and  legs  removed:  leg  and  wing  attachments;  spiracles; 
intersegmental  grooves. 

4.  Abdomen,  lateral  view :  ear ;  spiracles ;  abdominal  segments. 


[127] 


EXERCISE  64 


Fig.  94.     Cabbage  worm  or  larva  of  the 
cabbage  butterfly- 
Dorsal  and  lateral  view.     (After  Dean) 


THE  LIFE  HISTORY  OF  AN  INSECT 

Statement.  Before  we  can  control  insects  we  must  learn  something  of  their  Ufe  history ;  that  is,  when 
and  where  they  lay  their  eggs,  when  the  eggs  hatch,  into  what  forms  they  develop,  what  they  feed  upon. 

where  and  in  what  stage  they  pass  the  winter,  and  how  many  gener- 
ations are  produced  each  year  and  what  their  natural  enemies  are. 

Object.   To  study  the  Ufe  history  of  the  cabbage  worm. 

Materials.  A  flowerpot  for  each  student  in  which  a  yoimg 
cabbage  plant  is  growing ;  a  lantern  globe,  the  top  of  which  has 
been  covered  with  cheesecloth ;  a  number  of  breeding  cages  large 
enough  to  hold  several  of  the  potted  cabbage  plants ;  insect  nets 
and  cans  or  jars. 

Directions,  i.  A  few  days  after  the  cabbage  is  set  in  the  spring  observe  the  white  butterflies 
with  black  spots  on  the  wings,  which  may  be  seen  flying  about  near  the  ground.  Observe  how  and  where 
their  eggs  are  deposited.  Describe  the  eggs.  With  the 
insect  net  capture  mating  pairs  of  the  butterflies  and 

place  each  pair  in  a  jar  or  can 
so  they  may  be  taken  imin- 
jured  to  the  laboratory.  In 
the  laboratory  one  pair  should 
be  placed  in  each  of  a  number 
of  breeding  cages.  The  pots 
containing  the  young  cabbage 
plants  can  be  placed  in  the 
cages  and  daily  observations 
made  for  the  presence  of  eggs. 
Make  notes  and  drawings  of 
where  the  eggs  are  deposited, 
how  they  are  grouped,  their  color,  size,  and  shape. 

2.  After  the  eggs  hatch,  the  potted  plants  should  be  removed  from  the  breeding  cage  and  the 
large  lantern  globe,  the  top  of  which  has  been  covered  with  cheesecloth,  should  be  placed  over  each 

plant  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  larvae.  Make  notes  and  draw- 
ings describing  the  newly  hatched  larva,  showing  the  number  of 
molts  and  the  length  of  time  in  the  larval  stage.  If  possible,  observe 
the  transformation  of  the  larvae  to  the  pupal  form. 

3.  After  pupation  the  pupae  that  are  wanted  for  immedi- 
ate use  should  be  placed  in  a  light,  warm  room,  where  they  will 
probably  emerge  in  a  few  days.  Determine  and  make  notes  of 
date  and  method  of  emergence.   Describe  the  adult. 

Questions.  What  are  the  feeding  habits  of  larvae?  Will  the 
arsenical  sprays  kill  them  ?  When  and  how  often  should  the  sprays 
be  appUed?  Is  it  practical  to  hand  pick  the  larvae  from  young 
plants?     Where  and  in  what  position  are  the  eggs  laid? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.   Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  300-312.   Ginn  and  Company.  Sanderson, 
E.  W.   Insect  Pests  of  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard.   J.  Wiley  &  Sons.   Farmers'  Bulletin  766,  United  State 


Fig.  95-   Pupa  or  chrysalis  of 
the  cabbage  butterfly 


Dorsal  and  lateral  view 
Dean) 


(After 


Fig.  96.    Cabb^j; 


,j!_nL  lujurud  by  the  cabbage  worn ;; 
(After  Dean) 


Fig.  97.   Cabbage  butterfly  (Ponlia  rapa) 

on  cabbage  leaf 

(After  Dean) 


Department  of  Agricultiure. 


[128] 


I 


EXERCISE  65 


Fig.  98.   The  honey  bee 
a,  worker;  b,  queen;  c,  drone 


THE  STRUCTURE,  HABITS,  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  HONEY   BEES 

Statement.   The  honey  bee  produces  more  food  for  man  than  any  other  insect  —  directly  by  gather- 
ing nectar  from  the  flowers  and  changing  it  to  honey,  and  indirectly  —  by  pollinating  fruit  blossoms. 

The  bee  gathers  nectar,  a  natural  product  which 
would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

Object.   To  study  the  structure,  habits,  and  man- 
agement of  the  honey  bee. 

Materials.   Hives  of  live  bees ;    veil ;    smoker ; 
hive-tool ;  queen ;  excluding  board. 

Directions,  i.  For  the  first  examination  of  the 
colony,  select  the  middle  of  a  warm  spring  day  dur- 
ing the  period  when  fruit  trees  are 
in  bloom.  Light  the  smoker,  put  on  gloves,  adjust  veil.  Blow  a  few  puffs  of  smoke 
in  the  entrance  and  give  a  few  sharp  raps  on  the  body  of  the  hive,  raise  the  cover, 
blow  a  few  puffs  of  smoke  over  the  tops  of  the  frames,  grasp  the  frame  from  the 
middle  of  the  hive  at  each  end  and  carefully  lift  it  from  the  hive  (Fig.  loi).  Hold 
it  over  the  hive  in  such  a  way  that  the  comb  will  be  in  vertical  position.  Study 
the  brood,  which  is  in  concentric  rings.  Distinguish  the  queen, 
workers,  and  drones  (Fig.  98),  the  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupae  (Fig.  99), 
and  the  different  kinds  of  cells  (Fig.  100).  Note  whether  there 
are  any  insect  enemies  present,  or  any  bee  diseases. 

2.  Take  to  the  classroom  some  dead  workers  and  drones  for 
further  study.  Notice  the  mouth  parts,  the  brushes,  and  the 
pollen  baskets  on  their  legs.  Tell  how  the  bees  gather  pollen  and  make  bee  bread. 
Examine  on  the  front  leg  the  comblike  device  through  which  the  bee  draws  its 
anteimae  to  clean  them.  Examine  the  rings  on  the  under 
side  of  the  body  from  which  wax  is  secreted. 

3.  The  last  examination  should  be  made  in  the  fall  of 
the  year.  Determine  whether  or  not  they  have  sufficient  food  to  enable 
them  to  pass  the  winter  successfully  and  if  there  are  enough  bees  in  the  hive. 

Questions.  Name  the  three  kinds  of  bees  in  a  colony.  What  is  the 
relative  number  of  each?  What  is  the  sex  of  each  kind?  What  service  in 
the  colony  does  each  kind  render  ?  What  is  nectar  and  where  do  bees  obtain 
it  ?  Into  what  is  it  made  ?  What  use  do  bees  make  of  honey  ?  What  is  bee 
bread,  from  what  is  it  made,  and  to  what  use  is  it  put  by  bees?  What  is  the 
comb  ?  From  what  is  it  made  and  to  what  use  is  it  put  ?  In  what  way  do  bees 
aid  in  fruit  production  ?  How  many  pounds  of  honey  does  a  colony  of  bees  usually  produce  in  a  season 
above  their  own  needs  ?  How  may  you  know  whether  there  is  enough  honey  stored  to  support  the  colony 
during  the  winter?  When  should  you  make  inspections  for  this  purpose?  If  there  is  not  enough,  what 
is  the  remedy  ?  Name  the  principal  honey-producing  plants  of  the  community  and  state  the  season  in 
which  bees  feed  upon  each.    Which  plants  produce  the  best  quality  of  honey  ?   Which  the  poorest^ 

References.  Dadant,  C.  P.  'First  Lessons  in  Beekeeping,"  American  Bee  Journal.  Pellet,  F.  C. 
Productive  Beekeeping.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Root,  A.  Land  E.  I.  "ABC  and  X  Y  Z  of  Bee 
Culture,"  1917  ed.  A.  I.  Root  Company.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  300.  »Ginn  and  Company. 

[1301 


d 

Fig.  q9 

b,  young  larva; 
c,  older  larvae ;    d,  pupa 


a.  egg; 


Fig.  100.  Queen  cells 


Fig.  ioi.   One-story  stand  and 
hive  with  metal  cover 


EXERCISE   66 


A  STUDY  OF  FUNGI 

Statement.   Fungi  are  found  on  both  living  and  decaying  organic  matter,  and  are  present  in  abun- 
dance practically  wherever  there  is  dead  organic  matter.   Many  fungi  attack  plants  and  break  down  the 

living  tissue,  causing  the  plants  to  become  diseased.  The  fol- 
lowing fungi,  some  of  which  attack  living  plants,  can  usually 
be  found  :  corn  smut,  wheat  smut,  soft  rot  of  apple,  brown  rot 
of  peach  or  plum,  mold  on  peaches,  cherries,  or  improperly 
preserved  fruits,  and  mold  on  oranges  or  lemons. 

Object.  To  grow  and  study  fungi. 

Materials.  Stale  wheat  bread ;  tumbler;  microscope;  slides 
and  cover  glass ;  other  fungi  obtainable,  as  corn  smut,  wheat 
smut,  or  soft  rot  of  apple. 

Directions,  i.  A  typical  fungus  of  bread  mold  may  be 
obtained  in  from  three  to  five  days.  Moisten  a  small  piece 
of  bread  with  water,  place  it  in  a  large  tumbler,  and  allow  it  to 
stand  exposed  to  the  air  in  the  room  for  an  hour  or  two.  Add 
a  few  more  tablespoonfuls  of  water  and  cover  the  tumbler  with 
a  saucer  or  a  piece  of  heavy  cardboard.  Keep  this  in  a  warm 
room.  Within  a  few  days  a  white,  threadlike  growth  known 
as  mycelium  will  develop.  Mount  a  very  small  portion  of  this 
in  a  drop  of  water  on  a  slide,  using  a  cover  glass.  Examine 
this  under  the  low  and  high  power  of  the  microscope.  When 
the  spore  cases  appear  make  additional  studies. 
2.  In  a  similar 
Fig.  I02.  Corn  smut  manner  Collect  and 

mount  small  bits 
of  the  spore  masses 
(black  dust)  of 
corn     or     wheat 

smut  and  examine  them.   Compare  these  black-dust  spores 

with  bread-mold  spores  for  size.    Compare  various  spores 

as  to  their  color,  shape,  and  size.    Notice  any  particular 

markings  on  the  walls  of  the  smut  spores  and  describe 

each  of  them. 

3.  Place  an  apple,  peach,  plum,  orange,  or  lemon  which 

shows  signs  of  a  soft  rot  or  decay  in  a  dish  and  cover 

tightly  for  a  day  or  two.   A  fungus  will  develop  sufficiently 

to  be  easily  seen  with  the  unaided  eye.   Often  diseased  fruit 

with  the  fimgus  cropping  out  will  be  found  hanging  on  the 

tree.    Frequently  diseased  fruit  or  vegetables  can  be  found 

in  the  grocery  store.    Examine  small  portions  of  any  of 

the  fungi  which  are  cropping  out  from  diseased  fruit  under 

the  low  and  high  power  of  the  microscope,  just  as  the 

bread  mold  was  examined. 

[132] 


One  of  the  best-known  plant  diseases.  Common  on 
Indian  corn  all  over  the  United  States.  The  black 
smut  masses  are  composed  of  smut  dust  —  a  very 
great  number  of  spores.  (Photograph  by  L.  £. 
Melchers) 


Fig.  103.    Mold  on  orange 

This  may  easily  be  found  on  oranges  and  lemons  in  any 
grocery  store.  If  a  small  portion  is  scraped  off  with  a 
knife,  mounted  in  water,  and  examined  under  the  high 
power  of  the  microscope,  the  spores  are  easily  seen. 
(Photograph  by  L.  E.  Melchers) 


EXERCISE  66  {Continued) 

Questions.  Of  what  does  the  mycelium  consist  ?  What  do  sporangia  contain  ?  What  f imctions  do 
these  bodies  have  ?  Describe  the  spores  as  to  their  size,  shape,  and  color.  How  do  fungi  reproduce  ? 
How  does  corn  smut  spread  ?  How  does  wheat  smut  live  over  from  one  season  to  another  ?  Name  all 
the  farm  plants  that  you  know  to  be  attacked  by  smut. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  288-289.  Ginn  and  Company.  Duggas, 
B.  M.  Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants.  Ginn  and  Company.  Stevens  and  Hall.  Diseases  of  Economic  Plants, 
p.  486.   The  Macmillan  Company. 


r 


[133] 


EXERCISE   67 

A  STUDY  OF  BACTERIA 

Statement.  Bacteria  are  microscopic  single-celled  plants  living  either  singly  or  in  groups.  Under 
natural  conditions  they  are  present  on  almost  every  object  and  are  exceedingly  abundant  in  the  air, 
soil,  and  water.  Most  bacteria  are  harmless,  many  are  beneficial,  while  some  cause  disease.  Tuber- 
culosis, t)^hoid  fever,  and  cholera,  the  wilt  of  melons  and  cucumbers,  and  the  crown  gall  common  to 
apples,  alfalfa,  and  many  other  plants  are  common  bacterial  diseases. 

Object.   To  study  bacteria  and  observe  the  effects  of  bacterial  action. 

Materials.  Four  small  bottles ;  boiling  water ;  cotton;  Bulgar  tablets ;  microscope;  cover  glass  and 
slide. 

Directions.  Secure  four  small  bottles  or  tumblers  holding  approximately  half  a  pint.  These  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  placing  them  in  water  and  bringing  it  to  the  boiling  point  for  a  few  minutes. 
Fill  each  half  full  with  sweet  milk  (not  pasteurized).  Buy  some  Bulgar  tablets  or  tube  cultures  at  the 
drug  store ;   these  contain  the  living  bacteria.  Bacillus  bulgaricus.   Place  half  a  tablet  in  each  of  two 

tumblers  of  milk.  .Do  not  put  anything  in  the  other  samples. 

Insert  in  the  mouth  of  each  bottle  a  firm  cotton  plug  made  by 

rolling  the  cotton  into  a  roll.    Place  one  of  the  tumblers  contain- 

.'  •   ,-   ■Ke.' .  ..  ■".:i^  ft'   .     .     •■j.a     Jng  tjig  Bulgar  tablet,  and  one  of  the  tumblers  which  was  not 

inoculated  with  a  tablet,  in   a   refrigerator.     The   other  two 

ah  b  tumblers  should  be  placed  in  a  room  where  the  temperature  is 

Fig.  104.  A  group  of  bacteria  and  two  com-     about  80°  F.    At  the  end  of  twelve,  twenty-four,  and  thirty-six 

smut  spores  hours  Compare  the  two  samples  of  milk  containing  the  bacteria 

All  are  magnified  soo^times,  showing  relative       ^j^}^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  Untreated  Samples  as  to  their  odor  and  taste 

and  record  any  difference  that  may  be  apparent.  Describe 
what  you  have  discovered.  Note  the  appearance  of  the  milk  in  each  sample.  Record  any  difference 
in  the  physical  and  chemical  state  of  the  samples.  Return  the  bottles  to  their  respective  places  and 
reexamine  samples  at  the  end  of  forty-eight  and  seventy-two  hours.  Notice  the  differences  between 
the  souring  of  the  various  samples,  the  characteristic  odor,  and  the  physical  changes  in  the  milk. 
Examine  a  drop  of  sour  milk  under  the  highest  power  of  your  microscope.  Can  you  see  the 
bacteria  ?   Describe  what  you  see.    In  which  sample  are  the  bacteria  most  numerous  ? 

Questions.  What  was  the  effect  of  bacteria  upon  milk  ?  How  did  the  temperature  at  which  the 
milk  was  held  affect  the  action  of  bacteria?  At  what  temperatures  do  bacteria  grow  most  rapidly? 
What  temperature  is  required  to  kill  them  ?  What  are  the  common  ways  of  holding  bacteria  in  check 
or  killing  them  ?  Why  do  we  store  perishable  products  in  the  ice  box  ?  Explain  how  low  tempera- 
ture retards  the  souring  of  milk.  How  does  it  retard  the  spoiling  of  meat  and  eggs  ?  How  does  boiling 
and  sealing  while  hot  prevent  spoiUng  in  canned  fruits  and  vegetables  ?  Why  was  the  cotton  stuffed 
in  the  mouth  of  the  bottles  in  the  experiment  above  ?  Will  dirty  miUc  keep  as  well  as  clean  milk  ? 
Will  milk  keep  as  well  when  placed  in  dirty  vessels  as  in  clean  ones?  What  is  meant  by  sterilization 
and  how  may  it  be  accomphshed  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  sterihzation  ?  What  is  meant  by  pasteurization 
and  how  may  it  be  accomphshed  ?  What  product  is  most  generally  pasteurized  ?  Name  some  of  the 
most  common  disinfectants.  Why  do' we  spray  fruit  trees?  Name  some  common  diseases  of  plants 
which  are  due  to  bacteria  and  describe  the  best  method  of  preventing  them.  What  are  some  of  the 
common  diseases  of  farm  animals  caused  by  bacteria? 

References.  Conn,  H.  W.  Agricultural  Bacteriology.  P.  Blakiston's  Son  and  Company.  Lipman,  J.  G. 
Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

[1341 


Fig.  105.   Oat  smut 

This  is  common  in  oat  &elds  wherever  oats  are  grown. 

It  is  easily  controlled  by  disinfecting  the  seed.    The 

illustration  shows  one  good  head  and  three  diseased 

heads.     (Photograph  by  L.  E.  Melchers) 


EXERCISE  68 
CONTROLLING  PLANT  DISEASES 

Statement.  Much  of  the  great  loss  due  to  bacterial  plant 
diseases  may  be  controlled  by  disinfecting  the  seed.  One  of 
the  most  efficient  substances  for  this  purpose  is  formalin. 
This  disinfectant  is  used  successfully  in  the  case  of  stinking 
smut  of  wheat,  smut  of  oats,  barley,  sorghums,  and  potato 
scab. 

Object.  To  treat  seed  by  the  formalin  method  for  bacte- 
rial disease. 

Materials.  Pint  of  formalin ;  peck  samples  of  wheat  and 
oats  which  are  smut  infested ;  pails  for  immersing  the  seed. 

Directions.  Buy  a  pound  of  formalin  from  the  drug 
store,  and  secure  samples  of  wheat  and  oats  which  contain 
smut  from  the. elevator  or  from  the  farm  and  a  sample  of 
potatoes  from  a  field  which  suffered  from  potato  scab.  Pre- 
pare the  formalin  mixture,  using  one  pound  of  formalin  in 
forty-five  gallons  of  water.  Place  each  sample  to  be  treated 
in  a  cloth  bag  and  immerse  it  in  the  formalin  solution.  Leave 
it  immersed  for  ten  minutes  and  then  spread  out  to  dry.  Plant 
the  seed  as  soon  as  possible  after  receiving  the  treatment.  If 
you  live  on  the  farm  apply  treatments  at  home  to  seed  to  be 
used  on  the  farm.  It  will  be  necessary  to  figure  out  the  exact  quantity  of  solution  needed  for  treating 
a  small  lot  of  seed  or  potatoes.  Do  not  use  a  stronger  or  weaker  strength  than  recommended.  After 
treating,  plant  the  seed  and  ob- 
serve results,  as  compared  with  the 
results  from  tmtreated  seed  planted 
alongside  or  in  the  fields  of  the 
neighborhood. 

Questions.  What  are  the  most 
destructive  plant  diseases  in  your 
community  ?  How  are  bacteria  and 
fungi  distributed  ?  Where  may  they 
be  found  ?  What  is  the  value  of 
treating  seed  for  smut?  In  what 
form  is  smut  present  on  seed  ? 
Kame  as  many  methods  of  control 
of  plant  diseases  as  you  can.  Is  it 
much  trouble  to  treat  seed  with 
formalin?  Is  it  expensive?  If  5 
per  cent  of  the  crop  is  saved  by 
treating   the  seed,   does  it  pay? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  287-298.  Ginn  and  Company.  Duggar,  B.  M. 
Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants,  pp.  372-380.  Ginn  and  Company.  Stevens  and  Hall.  Diseases  of  Economic 
Plants,  p.  346.  The  MacmUlan  Company. 

[  135  ] 


Treating  seed  oats  for  smut  prc\cntion 


The  method  shown  is  the  new  "dry"  method,  concentrated  formaldehyde  solution  being 
used.     Every  shovelful  of  grain  is  given  one  "shot "  of  very  fine  spray.     (Photograph  liy 

L.  E.  Melchers) 


PART   V.     BREEDS   AND   TYPES    OF    FARM   ANIMALS 


EXERCISE   69 

WHERE  OUR   BREEDS   OF 
LIVE  STOCK  ORIGINATED 

Statement.  In  times  when 
men,  women,  and  children  had  to 
provide  food,  clothing,  and  shelter 
with  their  own  hands  and  had  to 
carry  their  burdens  on  their  own 
backs,  the  people  remained  un- 
civilized. Those  races  of  people 
which  early  learned  to  tame  wild 
animals  and  make  them  help 
to  provide  food  and  clothing,  and 
to  bear  burdens  soon  began  to 
establish  orderly  ways  of  living. 
They  soon  had  food  all  the 
year  around,  wore  clothes  in- 
stead of  skins  and  lived  in  houses 
instead  of  caves  or  trees.  Also 
those  races  which  made  the 
greatest  improvement  in  the  use- 
fulness of  their  domestic  animals 
have  developed  the  highest  forms 
of  agriculture  and  have  been  the 
world's  most  intelligent  farmers. 
Much  of  the  history  of  man's 
progress  from  a  state  of  savagery 
to  the  highest  state  of  civilization 
is  revealed  by  a  study  of  the 
origin  of  our  breeds  of  farm 
animals. 

Object.  To  fix  in  the  pupil's 
mind  the  countries  which  have 
contributed  most  to  the  improve- 
ment of  the  breeds  of  live  stock 
that  are  conunon  in  the  United 
States. 

Materials.  Outline  maps  of 
the  world  and  text  material 
showing  where  each  of  our  com- 
mon breeds  of  farm  animals 
originated. 


EXERCISE  69  (Continued) 


f 

P  Directions,  i.  Indicate  on  one  of  the  outline  maps  where  each  of  our  important  breeds 
of  horses  originated,  representing  the  draft  and  coach  breeds  by  one  color,  the  light  horses  by 
another,  etc. 

2.  On  another  map  indicate 
where  oUr  hogs  originated,  distin- 
guishing between  the  lard  hog 
and  the  bacon  hog. 

3.  On  a  third  map  show  by 
different  colors  the  origin  of  our 
beef  and  dairy  cattle. 

4.  Indicate  on  another  map 
the  origin  of  our  principal  breeds 
of  sheep,  differentiating  between 
the  wool  and  the  mutton  breeds. 

5.  On  another  map  show  the 
origin  of  the  important  breeds  of 
chickens,  representing  the  heavy 
types  by  a  different  color  from 
that  of  the  light  breeds. 

6.  On  a  sixth  map  show 
the  origin  of  all  improved  ani- 
mals, indicating  horses,  cattle, 
and  swine,  etc.,  by  different 
colors. 

Questions.  List  the  countries 
of  the  world  and  the  improved 
breeds  of  live  stock  furnished  by 
each.  List  the  animals  found 
on  local  farms.  Where  did  each 
originate?  Consult  the  yearbook 
of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  and  rank 
the  countries  as  to  the  value 
of  animal  products.  Rank  the 
animals  in  the  order  of  impor- 
tance in  your  state ;  in  your  com- 
munity. State  why  local  farmers 
produce  various  classes  of  live 
stock. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Es- 
sentials of  Agriculture,  pp.  330-339, 
395-407.  Ginn  and  Company. 
Bailey,  L.  H.  Encyclopedia  of 
American  Agriculture,  Vol.  3,  pp. 
1-15.  The  Macmillan  Company. 
Shaler,  N.  S.  Domesticated  Ani- 
mals.   Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


EXERCISE   70 


JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES 

Object.  To  study  in  detail  the  points  of  importance  in  judging  the  value  of  a  horse  and  to  fix  in 
mind  the  ideal  market  and  breeding  types.  Also  to  train  the  eye  in  detecting  weaknesses,  defects,  and 
blemishes,  and  to  understand  their  importance  in  estimating  the  usefulness  and  selling  value  of  horses. 

Materials.  Pictures  of  prize-winning  horses  clipped  from  live-stock  journals  and  mounted  on  cards  ; 
stereopticon  and  slides  ;  score  card  on  opposite  page  ;  suitable  animals  for  practice  in  judging. 

Directions.  The  work  should  be  begun  by  a  study  of  the  illustrations  and  by  practice  in  locating 
on  the  living  animal  each  of  the  most  important  parts.  A  study  of  the  types  and  breed  characteristics 
of  horses  is  also  necessary.     Practice  should  be  given  in  the  use  of  the  score  card.   Note  how  nearly 

each  part  conforms  to  the  standard  given ; 
express  judgment  in  writing  of  the  worth  of 
each  part.  It  is  well  in  the  early  exercises  for 
the  student  to  compare  his  score  in  detail 
with  that  made  by  his  classmates  and  by 
the  instructor. 

Comparative  or  competitive  judging.    The 

use  of  the  score  card  is  preliminary  to  the  more 
practical  method  of  judging  —  that  of  taking 
in  with  the  eye,  quickly  and  accurately,  the 
^^  general  conformation  of  an  animal  and  form- 
ing a  sound  judgment  as  to  the  comparative 
worth  of  a  number  of  animals  presented  in 
competition.  At  the  beginning  of  competitive 
judging  it  is  well  to  limit  the  number  to  three 
or  four  animals  and  whenever  possible  to 
choose  animals  that  have  obvious  differences 
in  form  and  value.  Students,  working  inde- 
pendently and  without  conversation,  should 
be  required  to  place  the  animals  in  the  order 
of  their  worth  and  to  give  written  reasons  for 
their  placings.  After  the  work  is  completed 
the  fullest  discussion  should  be  had  and  the  teacher  should  offer  constructive  criticism  of  the  work. 

Judging  contests.  Contests  between  high-school  teams  in  judging  the  principal  classes  of  live  stock, 
either  at  the  farm  of  some  prominent  breeder  or  at  the  local  or  state  fair,  will  be  of  much  value  in  stimu- 
lating interest  in  live-stock  production  and  in  developing  school  spirit. 

Questions.  How  do  we  measure  the  height  of  horses?  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  medium 
sloping  shoulder?  or  of  a  close  back  coupling?  of  a  medium  sloping  pastern?  Describe  accurately 
the  kind  of  foot  desired  on  heavy  horses,  and  why.  Name  the  breeds  of  draft  horses.  Name  and  de- 
scribe the  market  classes  of  heavy  horses  and  state  the  uses  of  each.  Has  the  use  of  the  farm  tractor  and 
auto  truck  affected  the  use  of  this  type  of  horses,  and  how?  What  breeds  of  draft  horses  predomi- 
nate in  your  neighborhood  ? 

References.  W.^ters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  330-352.  Ginn  and  Company.  Gay,  C.  W.  Pro- 
ductive Horse  Husbandry,  pp.  139-144.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Vaughan,  H.  W.  Types  and  Market 
Classes  of  Live  Stock,  pp.  361-325.  R.  G.  Adams  and  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm 
Animals,  pp.  92-97.   Ginn  and  Company. 

[138] 


Fig.  107.    The  points  in  judging  a  horse 

I,  mouth;  2,  nostril;  3,  chin;  4,  nose;  5,  face;  6,  forehead;  7,  eye;  8,  ear; 
g,  lower  jaw;  10,  throatlatch;  11,  windpipe;  12,  crest;  13,  withers;  14, 
shoulder;  15,  breast;  16,  arm;  17,  elbow;  18,  forearm;  19,  knee;  20,  can- 
aon;  2 1 ,  fetlock  joint ;  22,  pastern;  23,  foot;  24,  fore  flank ;  25,  heart  girth; 
26,  coupling;  27,  back;  28,  loin;  29,  rear  flank;  30,  belly;  31,  hip;  32, 
croup;  33,  tail;  34,  buttocks;  35,  quarters;  36,  thigh;  37,  stifle;  38,  gaskin 
or  lower  thigh ;   39,  hock 


EXERCISE  70  (Continued) 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  DRAFT  HORSES 


Scale  of  Poikts 


Score 


Possible 


Student's 


Corrected 


Ace,  estimated. 


yr. 


actual yr. 


GENERAL    APPEARANCE  —  26  Points 


Height :  estimated hands ;  actual hands 

Weight :  over  1600  lb.  in  good  condition ;  estimated lb.,  score  according  to  age 

Form :  broad,  massive,  symmetrical,  blocky 

Quality :  refined ;  bone  clean,  large,  strong ;  tendons  dean,  defined,  prominent ;  skin  and  hair  fine ;  "  feather,"  if 

present,  silky 

Action :  energetic,  straight,  true,  elastic ;  walk,  stride  long,  quick,  regular ;  trot  free,  balanced,  rapid  . 

Temperament :  energetic ;  disposition  good 

Style :  stylish  and  graceful  carriage 


HEAD    AND    NECK  —  8  Points 

Head :  proportionate  size,  clean-cut,  well-carried ;  profile  straight 

Muzzle  :  neat ;  nostrils  large,  flexible ;  lips  thin,  even,  firm 

Eyes :  full,  bright,  clear,  large,  same  color 

Forehead:  broad,  full 

Ears :  medium  size,  tapering,  well-carried,  alert 

Lower  jaw :  angles  wide,  space  clean 

Neck :  medium  length,  well-muscled,  arched ;   throatlatch  fine ;  windpipe  large 

FORE    QUARTERS  —  23  Points 

Shoulders :  long,  moderately  sloping,  heavily  and  smoothly  muscled,  extending  into  back 

Arms :  short,  heavily  muscled,  thrown  back,  well-set 

Forearm :  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled 

Knees ;  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean,  well-supported 

Cannons :  short,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  large,  clean,  and  well-defined,  set  back 

Fetlocks :  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns :  moderate  slope  and  length,  strong,  clean       

Feet :  large,  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  concave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frog  large,  elastic ; 
heels  wide,  strongly  supported 

Legs :  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot ;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the 
elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints  ahd  the  back  of  the  hoof .... 

BODY —  10  Points 

Withers  :  moderate  height,  smooth,  extending  well  back 

Chest :  deep ;  breastbone  low ;  girth  large 

Ribs :  deep,  well-sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip 

Back:  broad,  short,  strong,  muscular 

Loin :  broad,  short,  heavily  muscled 

Underline :  long,  low ;  flanks  well  let  down 

HIND    QUARTERS  —  33  Points 

Hips :  broad,  smooth,  level 

Croup :  long,  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  markedly  drooping 

Tail :  attached  high,  well-carried ■ 

Thighs :  deep,  broad,  heavily  muscled 

Quarters  :  deep,  heavily  muscled 

Stifles ;  clean,  strong 

Gaskins  (lower  thighs) :  long,  wide,  heavily  muscled 

Hocks ;  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean 

Cannons :  short,  wide,  clean ;   tendons  large,  clean,  and  well-defined,  set  back 

Fetlocks :  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns:  moderate  slope  and  length,  strong,  clean 

Feet :  large  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  concave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frog  large,  elastic ;  heels 
wide,  strongly  supported 

Legs :  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  hock,  cannon,  and  foot ;  from  the  side,  a  pcrpentiicular  line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the 
center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle,  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of 
the  buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 

ToUl 


[139] 


EXERCISE  71 


tio.  io8.   A  grand  chanipiun  saddle  horse 


JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

Object.   To  fix  clearly  in  mind  the  conformation  peculiar  and  desirable  to  each  type  of  harness 

horse,  and  of  the  saddle  horse.   To  accomplish  this  the  student  must  first  learn  the  history  of  the 

development   of    each    type,    and 
know  the  uses  of  each. 

Materials.  Charts  showing  the 
names  of  the  parts  of  a  horse ;  pic- 
tures of  prize-wirming  animals  of 
each  class  clipped  from  live-stock 
journals;  stereopticon  and  slides; 
score  card  on  opposite  page  and 
suitable  animals  for  judging. 

Directions.  After  a  careful 
study  of  the  draft  horse,  it  will  be 
less  difficult  to  judge  the  other 
classes  of  horses.  The  parts  are 
named  the  same,  defects  occur  in 
common,  and  indications  of  con- 
stitution and  quality  are  similar. 
The  differences  are  those  which 
fit  the  animals  for  their  particular 
work:  in  the  draft  horse,  pulling 
power;  in  the  heavy  horse,  style, 

action,  and  conformation ;  in  the  light  harness  horse,  style,  action,  speed,  and  endurance ;  in  the  saddle 

horse,  gaits,  style,  temperament,  and  carrying  strength ;  in  ponies,  style  and  tractable  disposition. 
Score  the  animals  of  the  different  classes  according  to  the  points  which  are  outlined  in  the  score 

card.    Compare  your  own  score  card  with  the  score  cards  of  your  classmates,  and  also  with  that  of 

your  instructor.   Does  your  score  differ  from  theirs ? 
Discuss  fully  the  points  wherein  your   score 

varies  with  that  of  the  instructor  or  of  the  other 

students. 

Questions.  Name  the  breeds  of  light  horses  and 
write  a  brief  sketch  of  the  origin,  distribution,  and 
present  uses.  How  has  the  automobile  affected  the 
use  and  value  of  light  horses  ?  What  are  the  factors 
of  first  importance  in  light  horses  ?  How  many  light 
horses  are  there  in  your  neighborhood,  and  to  what 
use  are  they  being  put  ?  Are  there  fewer  or  more 
than  there  were  ten  years  ago?   Why? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agricul- 
ture, pp.  330-350.  Ginn  and  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  7-92.  Ginn 
and  Company.  Vaughan,  H.  W.  Types  and  Market 
Classes  of  Live  Stock,  pp.  352-372.  R.  G.  Adams  and 
Company.  Gay,  C.  W.  Productive  Horse  Husbandry, 
pp.  144-148.   J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


Fig.  109.  The  Shetland  pony,  Locust,  wh;....ji^iv^ 
the  highest  price  in  the  history  of  the 


;or  over  $2000, 
breed 


[140] 


I 


EXERCISE  71   {Continued) 
SCORE  CARD   FOR  LIGHT  HORSES' 


Scale  of  Points 


Age :  estimated yr.,  actual y r.        

GENERAL    APPEARANCE  —  28  Points 


Weight :  estimated lb. ;  actual lb 

Height :  estimated hands ;  actual hands 

Form :  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish 

Quality :  refined ;  bone  clean,  fine ;   tendons  clean,  defined ;  hair  and  skin  fine 

Action :  energetic,  straight,  true,  elastic ;  walk,  stride  long,  quick,  regular ;  trot,  free,  balanced,  rapid 
Temperament :  active ;  disposition  good ;   carriage  stylish 


HEAD   AND    NECK  —  8  Points 

Head ;  proportionate  size,  clean-cut,  well-carried ;  profile  straight 

Muzzle ;  neat ;  nostrils  large,  flexible ;   lips  thin,  even,  firm 

Eyes :  full,  bright,  clear,  large,  same  color 

Forehead :  broad,  full 

Ears:  medium  size,  tapering,  well-carried,  alert 

Lower  jaw :  angles  medium  wide,  space  clean 

Neck :  long,  well-muscled,  arched ;   throatlatch  fine,  clean ;  windpipe  large 

FORE    QUARTERS  —  23  Points 

Shoulder:  long,  sloping,  smoothly  muscled,  extending  into  back 

Arms :  short,  strongly  muscled,  thrown  back,  well-set 

Forearm :  long,  wide,  clean,  strongly  muscled 

Knees :  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean,  strongly  supported 

Cannons :  short,  wide,  clean ;   tendons  large,  clean,  and  well-defined,  set  back 

Fetlocks :  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns :  long,  sloping,  strong,  clean 

Feet :  medium  and  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  concave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frog,  large,  elastic ; 
heels  wide,  strongly  supported  

Legs :  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot ;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  Une  dropping  from  the  center  of  the 
elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints  and  the  back  of  the  hoof  .... 

BODY  —  10  Points 

Withers:  moderate  height,  smooth,  extending  well  back 

Chest :  deep,  wide ;  breastbone  low ;  girth  large       

Ribs:  deep,  well-sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip 

Back :  broad,  short,  strong,  muscular       

Loins :  broad,  short,  strongly  and  smoothly  muscled 

nnderline :  long,  low ;  flanks  well  let  down 

HIND    QUARTERS  — 31  Points 

Hips :  broad,  smooth,  level 

Croup :  long,  wide,  muscular,  not  markedly  drooping 

Tail :  attached  high,  well-carried • 

Thighs :  deep,  broad,  strongly  muscled 

Quarters :  deep,  heavily  muscled         

Stifles :  strong,  clean,  muscular 

Gaskins  (lower  thighs) :  long,  wide,  strongly  muscled 

Hocks :  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean . 

Cannons :  short,  wide,  clean  ;   tendons  large,  clean,  and  well-defined,  set  back 

Fetlocks :  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns:  long,  sloping,  strong,  clean 

Feet :  medium  and  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  concave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frog,  large,  elastic 
heels  wide,  stroncly  supported 

Legs:  viewed  from  behind,  a  pcrjxrndicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  hock,  cannon,  and  foot ;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joints  should  fall  upon  the 
center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle ;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 

Total 


Score 


Possible    Student's     Corrected 


4 

4 

15 

3 


'  For  saddle  horses  the  light-horse  score  card  should  be  used,  including,  under  .\ction,  the  five  gaits;  namely,  walk,  canter,  rack,  fox 
trot,  and  slow  pace  or  running  walk.    For  coach  horses  it  should  be  remembered  that  high  and  stylish  action  are  preferable  to  speed. 


[1411 


EXERCISE   72 

BLEMISHES,   UNSOUNDNESSES,  FAULTS,  AND  VICES  IN  H0RSE3 

Statement.  In  judging  a  horse  both  unsoundness  and  conformation  are  vitally  important  and 
largely  determine  the  placing  the  animal  receives.  Horses  have  many  defects  which  lessen  their  value  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree.   Some  of  the  important  defects  are  listed  below. 

1.  Blemish.  A  healed  injury  of  the  skin  or  of  the  parts  immediately  underlying  it.  Example: 
Scars  as  a  result  of  wire  cuts. 

2.  Unsoundness.  Any  condition  that  interferes  with  the  animal's  usefulness  or  which  will  make 
the  animal  less  useful  in  the  course  of  time.   The  following  forms  are  recognized : 

a.  Temporary  unsoundness.  A  condition  amenable  to  treatment  and  without  leaving  after-effects. 
Example :    Lameness  as  the  result  of  a  nail  puncture. 

b.  Permanent  unsoundness.  A  condition  which  interferes  with,  or  may  at  any  time  interfere  with, 
the  natural  usefulness  of  the  animal.    Example :   a  bone  spavin. 

c.  Serviceably  sound.  This  means  that  the  animal  is  sound,  but  may  carry  a  blemish,  such  as  a 
scar,  which  does  not  and  will  not  interfere  with  its  usefulness. 

3.  Defect.  This  term  refers  more  to  a  bad  form  with  which  the  animal  was  born,  though  at  times 
it  may  be  an  acquired  condition.   Two  varieties  are  usually  recognized  : 

a.  Absolute  defect.  This  may  be  as  serious  as  an  unsoundness  and  decrease  the  value  of  an 
animal  for  all  forms  of  service.   Example :    very  narrow  chest  or  small  nostrils. 

b.  Relative  defect.  Such  a  defect  disqualifies  for  certain  forms  of  service  only.  Examples :  a 
straight  shoulder  on  a  horse  intended  for  speed,  or  a  sway-back  on  a  horse  intended  for  carrying  heavy 
loads. 

4.  Vices.  These  are  mental  rather  than  physical  defects.  The  term  "fault"  is  sometimes  used  to 
designate  a  mild  vice,  as  halter  pulling,  while  a  true  vice,  such  as  kicking  or  running,  makes  the  animal 
more  or  less  unserviceable  or  dangerous. 

Object.   To  recognize  the  above  defects  readily. 

Materials.  Horses  showing  examples  of  the  various  unsoundnesses  and  blemishes. 

Directions.  Invite  the  local  veterinarian  to  hold  a  clinic  at  the  school  and  ask  him  to  secure  typical 
examples  of  as  many  important  blemishes  and  unsoundnesses  as  possible  for  student  practice  in  locating 
and  recognizing  them.  Classify  all  unsoundnesses  as  temporary,  permanent,  and  serviceably  sound. 
Classify  all  defects  as  absolute  or  relative.   Use  the  following  outline  in  making  your  classification : 


x^v 


- '  'x^jP.JKi' 


Fig.  110.   Types  of  blemishes,  defects,  and  unsoundness 

From  left  to  right  defects  are  indicated  by  x :  bog  spavin ;  bone  spavin ;  splint ;    thoroughpin ;    curb ;    ringbone ;    sidebone.     (Courtesy  of 

the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture) 

[1421 


EXERCISE  72  (Continued) 

LOCATION  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  COMMON  UNSOUNDNESSES 

The  name  of  the  unsoundness  is  given  opposite  the  place  where  it  occurs,  and  in  addition,  in  so  far  as  possible,  all 
blemishes  are  indicated  by  the  abbreviation  "  bl." ;  temporary  unsoundnesses  by  "  t.  un." ;  permanent  unsoundness  by 
"  p.  un." ;  serviceably  sound  by  "  s.  s." ;  absolute  defects  by  "  ab.  d." ;  relative  defects  by  "  rel.  d." ;  faults  by  "  f." ; 
and  vices  by  "  v."  The  list  deserves  careful  study,  in  the  beginning  of  judging  work,  both  with  the  aid  of  charts  and 
diagrams  and  with  animals. 


WHAT  TO  LOOK   FOR 

WHAT  TO  LOOK  FOR 

WHAT  TO  LOOK  FOR 

I.  Head 

III.  Back 

7.  Coronets: 

I.  Region  of  the  poll : 

I.  Withers: 

a.  Sidebone  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

o.  Poll  evil  (t.  un.) 

0.  Fistula  (t.  un.  or  p.  un.) 

b.  Quittor  (t.  un.) 

b.  Scars  of  previous  operations  (bl.) 
2.  Eyes: 
a.  Blindness  (p.  un.) 

IV.  Tail 

c.  Low  ringbone  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 
8.  Feet: 
a.  Navicular  disease  (p.  im.  or  s.  s.) 

b.  Blue-eyed 

I.  Tail: 

b.  Founder  (t.  un.  or  p.  un.) 

3.  Ears: 

0.  Unhealed  docked  end  (bl.) 

c.  Toe  cracks  (t.  un.) 

0.  Overmobile  indicates 

b.  False  tail  attached 

d.  Quarter  cracks  (t.  un.) 

(i)  Viciousness  (v.) 

c.  Lateral  curvation  (a.) 

(2)  Nervousness  (f.) 

d.  Limp  or  paralyzed  tail  (rel.  d.  or 

VI.  Hind  limbs 

(3)  Blindness  (ab.  d.) 

p.  un.) 

I.  Hips: 

b.  Immobile  indicates 

a.  Broken  ilium  (t.  un.) 

(i)  Deafness  (p.  un.) 

V.  Fore  limb 

b.  "  Knocked  down  "  hips  (p.  un.) 

(2)  Sluggishness  (rel.  d.  or  f.) 

I.  Shoulder: 

2.  Stifle: 

(3)  Lockjaw  (t.  un.  or  p.  un.) 

a.  Collar  boils  (bl.  or  t.  un.) 

0.  Dislocated  petells  or  stifle  (t.  im. 

4.  Nostrils: 

b.  Sweeney  (bl.  or  t.  un.) 

or  p.  un.) 

a.  Discharge  indicates 

c.  Abscess   or  fistula   (t.  un.  or  p. 

b.  Dropsical  swelling  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

(i)  Catarrh  (t.  un.) 

im.) 

3.  Hocks: 

(2)  Glanders  (p.  un.) 

2.  Elbow: 

a.  Thoroughpin  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

(3)  Diseased  molars  (t.  un.) 

a.  Shoe  boil.  (bl.  or  t.  un.) 

b.  Curb  (bl.,  t.  un.,  p.  un.,  or  s.  s.) 

b.  Signs  of 

3.  Knee : 

c.  Spavin: 

(i)  Roaring  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

a.  High  splint  (p.  un.) 

(i)  Bone  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

(2)  Heaves  (p.  un.) 

b.  Broken  knee 

(2)  Bog  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

5.  Muzzle  and  lips: 

c.  Buck  knee  (ab.  d.) 

d.  Capped  hock  (bl.,  t.  un.,  or  p.  un.) 

a.  Bit  sores  (bl.) 

d.  Calf  knee  (ab.  d.) 

6.  Teeth: 

e.  Capped  knee  (bl.,  t.  un.,  or  p.  un.) 

VII.  General  diseases 

0.  Diseased  molars  (bl.  or  p.  un.) 

b.  "  Bishoped  "  (bl.) 

c.  "  Parrot  "  mouth  (ab.  d.  or  rel.  d.) 

d.  Undershot  jaw  (ab.  d.  or  rel.  d.) 

4.  Cannon : 

a.  Splints  (bl.,  t.  un.,  or  p.  un.) 

b.  Thick  tendons  (bl.,  t.  un.,  or  p. 

un.) 

c.  Grease  heel  or  scratches  (bl.  or  t. 

un.) 

1.  St.  Vitus'  dance  (p.  un.) 

2.  Crampiness  (t.  un.  or  p.  un.) 

3.  Stringhalt  (t.  un.  or  p.  un.) 

7.  Tongue : 
a.  Mutilation  —  end  cut  off  to  pre- 

4. Roaring  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

5.  Heaves  (p.  un.) 

vent  lolling  (bl.  or  p.  un.) 

d.  Scars  of  unnerving  to  prevent  lame- 
ness due  to  ringbone  (s.  s.) 

Vlli.  Faults 

II.  Neck 

5.  Fetlock : 

:.  Cribbing  (f.) 

I.  Upper  border: 

a.  Windgalls  (bl.  or  s.  s.) 

2.  Wind  sucking  (f) 

0.  Broken  crest  (bl.) 

b.  Interfering  sores  (bl.) 

3.  Halter  pulling  (f.) 

b.  Braided  mane 

c.  Cocked  ankles  (ab.  d.) 

4.  Shying  (f.) 

2.  Lower  border: 

d.  Grease  heel  or  scratches  (bl.  or  t. 

5.  Rolling  in  stall  (f.) 

a.  Roaring  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

un.) 

b.  Broken  windpipe  (bl.  or  p.  un.) 

6.  Pasterns: 

IX.  Vices 

3.  Sides: 

a.  High  ringbone  (p.  un.  or  s.  s.) 

I.  Balking  (v.) 

a.  Unilateral    functionless    jugular 

b.  Scars  or  unnerving,   to   prevent 

2.  Biting  (v.) 

vein  (bl.) 

lameness     due     to     navicular 

3.  Kicking  (v.) 

h.  Bilateral  functionless  jugular  vein 

disease  (s.  s.) 

4.  Running  away  (v.) 

Questions.  Upon  what  will  the  importance  of  an  unsoundness  depend  ?  What  defects  may  a  horse 
show  and  still  render  excellent  service  ?  What  is  the  relation  of  conformation  to  the  possible  occurrence 
of  unsoundness  ?  What  will  be  likely  to  occur  to  a  draft  colt  having  a  narrow,  light-boned  hock  ? 

References.  Vaughan,  H.  W.  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock,  pp.  298-394.  R.  G.  Adams  and 
Company.  How  to  Select  a  Sound  Horse,  Farmers'  Bulletin  j-jg.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Craig,  R.  A.  Common  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  143-200.   J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

[143  1 


EXERCISE  73 


JUDGING  MULES 

Object.  To  study  systematically  the  conformation  of  the  mule ;  to  develop  ability  to  select  animals 
that  are  efficient  machines,  and  to  detect  and  evaluate  imperfections. 

Materials.  Illustrations  and  charts  showing  the  parts  of  a  mule ;  pictures  of  good  individuals  clipped 
from  live-stock  journals ;  score  card  on  opposite  page,  and  available  animals  for  judging. 

Directions.  Since  the  mule  is  essentially  a  draft  animal  for  use  under  conditions  which  require 
both  strength  and  agility,  the  chief  points  in  judging  relate  to  size,  weight,  and  action.  Mules  should 
be  somewhat  more  rangy  than  horses.  Plenty  of  bone  is  an  essential  point  and  a  clean  cut  head  and 
neck  is  to  be  looked  for.  Note  carefully  the  temperament  of  mules  as  it  is  quite  important  for  the  com- 
fort and  convenience  of  those  who 
are  to  use  them.  Study  the  parts  of 
the  animal  and  score  the  various 
animals  available  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  given  in  the  score 
card  on  the  following  page.  Note 
that  the  work  is  very  similar  to 
scoring  horses  and  should  occa- 
sion but  little  difficulty  if  the  horse 
has  been  carefully  studied.  Judge 
two  or  more  animals  in  competition 
and  place  them  according  to  their 
worth.  Give  reasons  in  each  case. 
Opportunities  for  comparative 
judging  are  present  at  almost  any 
time,  as  a  team  of  animals  will 
do  for  the  work  and  can  usually  be 
found.  The  eye  should  be  trained 
to  see  the  excellences  and  the  de- 
ficiencies of  an  animal  almost  at  a 
glance.  Such  skill  can  only  be  acquired  by  constant  practice  in  comparative  judging.  The  habit 
of  "sizing  up"  every  animal  one  sees  should  be  formed  early.  The  degree  to  which  the 
members  of  work  teams  match  in  size,  color,  conformation,  and  action  should  be  observed.  The 
animals  which  show  evidences  of  thrift  should  be  noted  and  compared  with  those  which  are  always 
unthrifty. 

Questions.  What  are  the  market  classes  of  mules?  What  are  the  specifications  as  to  height, 
weight,  and  type  of  each?  To  what  uses  is  each  adapted?  What  is  the  relative  value  of  each  class 
in  your  local  market  ?  Where  are  the  principal  mule  markets  of  the  United  States  ?  In  what  condition 
are  mules  most  readily  salable,  and  why  ?  What  is  the  predominant  type  of  mule  produced  and  used 
in  your  neighborhood?  At  what  age  is  the  mule  put  to  work?  At  what  age  is  he  at  his  prime?  At 
what  age  does  he  usually  begin  to  decline  in  value?  How  does  the  mule  compare  with  the  horse  in 
its  capacity  to  withstand  hardship  ? 


Fig.  III.   A  champion  pair  of  mules 


References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  339-349.  Ginn  and  Company.  Gay,  C.  W. 
Productive  Horse  Husbandry,  pp.  309-314.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Vaughan,  H.  W.  Types  and  Market 
Classes  of  Live  Stock,  pp.  413-418.  R.  G.  Adams  and  Company.  Pujmb,  C.  S.  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm 
Animals,  pp.  161-167.   Ginn  and  Company. 

[144] 


I 


EXERCISE  73  {Continued) 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  MULES 


Scale  of  Points 


Age :  estimated yr.,  actual yr 


GENERAL   APPEARANCE  —  26  Points 

Height:  16  hands  or  over;  estimated  ....  actual 

Weight:  1200  to  1600  lb.  in  good  condition;  estimated lb.,  score  according  to  age 

Form :  broad,  massive,  symmetrical,  blocky 

Quality :  bone  clean,  large,  strong ;  tendons  defined ;  skin  and  hair  fine 

Action :  energetic,  straight,  true,  elastic ;  walk,  stride  long,  quick,  regular ;   trot,  free,  balanced,  rapid      .     . 
Temperament :  active,  good  disposition ;  stylish  carriage       

HEAD   AND    NECK  —  9  Points 

Head :  proportionate  size,  clean-cut,  well-carried ;  profile  straight  or  slightly  Roman-nosed 

Muzzle :  neat ;   nostrils  large,  flexible ;  lips  thin,  even,  firm 

Eyes :  full,  bright,  clear,  large,  same  color 

Forehead  :  broad,  full 

Ears :  large,  tapering,  fine  texture,  well-earned,  alert 

Lower  jaw :  angles  wide,  space  clean 

Neck :  medium  length,  well-muscled,  arched ;   throatlatch  fine ;  windpipe  large 

FORE    QUARTERS  —  22  Points 

Shoulders :  long,  moderately  sloping,  heavily  and  smoothly  muscled,  extending  into  back 

Arms :  short,  heavily  muscled,  thrown  back,  well-set 

Forearm :  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled 

Knees :  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  well-supported 

Cannons :  short,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  large,  clean,  and  well-defined,  set  back 

Fetlocks :  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns :  moderate  slope  and  length,  strong,  clean  .     .     .     -. 

Feet :  large,  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  concave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frog  large,  elastic ;  heels 
wide  and  strongly  supported        .     .  

Legs :  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  Une  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot ;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the 
elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints  and  the  back  of  the  hoof ... 

BODY  —  10  Paints 

Withers :  moderate  height,  smooth,  extending  well  back 

Chest ;  deep,  wide ;  breastbone  low ;  girth  large       

Ribs :  deep,  well-sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip 

Back:  broad,  short,  strong,  muscular 

Loin :  broad,  short,  heavily  muscled        

Underline :  long,  low ;  flank  well  let  down 


HIND   QUARTERS  —  33  Points 


Hips :  broad,  smooth,  level 

Croup :  long,  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  markedly  drooping 

Tail :  attached  high,  well-carried 

Thighs :  deep,  broad,  strong,  heavily  muscled 

Quarters :  deep,  heavily  muscled 

Stifles:  strong,  clean,  muscular 

Gaskins  (lower  thighs) :  long,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  large,  heavily  muscled 

Hocks:  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean 

Cannons :  short,  wide,  clean ;  tendons  large,  clean,  and  well-defined,  set  back 

Fetlocks :  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns :  moderate  slope  and  length,  strong,  clean 

Feet :  large,  even  size,  sound ;  horn  dense,  waxy ;  soles  concave ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frog  large,  elastia;  heels 
wide  and  strongly  supported       

Legs :  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  hock,  cannon,  and  foot ;  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the 
center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in  the  middle ;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  should  run  parallel  with  the  line  of  the  cannon 


Total 


Score 


Possible     Student's     Corrected 


[145 


EXERCISE   74 

JUDGING  BEEF   CATTLE 

Object.  To  study  the  factors  determining  the  value  of  beef  cattle  from  the  standpoint  of  the  breeder, 
feeder,  and  butcher;  to  study  the  proportion  and  general  symmetry  of  an  animal  so  as  to  form 
an  accurate  judgment  regarding  its  size,  weight,  condition,  quality,  and  general  conformation. 


Fig.  112.   Poor  type  of  feeder 

This  steer  is  lacking  in  depth  of  body  and  expanse  of  stomach  char- 
acteristic of  the  better  type  of  feeder 


FjG.  113.    bhurlhorn  steer  —  .Merry  iVlonarch 

Grand  champion  steer  at  the  International  Livestock  Exposition  in 
1917.    Fed  and  exhibited  by  Purdue  University 


Materials.  Pictures  of  good  types  of  animals  clipped  from  live-stock  journals  and  mounted  on  cards ; 
stereopticon  and  slides ;  score  card  on  opposite  page ;  suitable  animals  for  judging. 

Directions.  Observe  carefully  the  illustrations  showing  the  parts  of  a  beef  animal  and  be  able  to 
locate  the  parts  on  the  animal  before  beginning  the  judging.  Beef  cattle  are  judged  by  both  the  eye 
and  the  hand.   The  eye  determines  the  form,  symmetry,  size,  color ;  the  hand  determines  the  thickness 


Fig.  114.   Hereford  steer  —  California  Favorite 

Grand  champion  steer  at  the  International  Livestock  Exposition  of 
1916.    Bred,  fed,  and  exhibited  by  the  University  of  California 


Fig.  I  IS-   Aberdeen  .'Vngus  steer  —  Victor 

Grand  champion  at  the  International  Livestock  Exposition  in  1911. 
Fed  and  exhibited  by  the  Iowa  State  College 


of  flesh,  pliability  and  looseness  of  the  skin,  and  the  texture  of  the  hair.  In  judging  the  covering  run 
the  tips  of  the  fingers  along  the  backbone,  the  loin,  shoulder  top  and  side,  and  the  tail-head,  which  are 
the  parts  least  likely  to  be  well  covered.  Test  the  quality  of  the  skin  by  picking  up  a  roll  over  the  back 
rib  while  the  animal's  head  is  held  directly  forward. 

In  judging  a  beef  animal  the  standpoint  from  which  it  is  judged  is  of  much  importance.   Check  the 
ten  most  important  items  in  the  score  card  from  the  standpoint  of  the  breeder;  of  the  feeder;  of  the 

[  146  ] 


EXERCISE  74  {Continued) 

butcher.   Give  a  verbal  description  of  how  a"  good  feeder  should  appear.   Contrast  it  with  the  type  that 
makes  a  poor  feeder  in  stomach  capacity,  hair  coat,  mellowness  of  the  skin,  etc. 

The  score  card  is  not  a  set  of  rules.  It  is  intended  to  help  pupils  to  form  an  opinion  and  make  their 
judgment  of  the  worth  of  an  animal  correct.  After  a  pupil  has  become  familiar  with  the  points  to  be 
considered  and  their  relative  worth  he  shoufd  undertake  comparative  judging.  Constant  observation 
and  practice  in  comparative  judging  will  enable  a  student  to  place  an  exhibit  of  animals  without  recourse 
to  the  score  card.  Practical  judging  resolves  itself  into  the  problem  of  weighing  one  fault  against 
another  and  comparing  one  virtue  with  another  and  quickly  estimating  values.  Place  an  exhibit  of 
animals  and  give  oral  reasons  for  your  placings. 

Questions.  Name  the  qualities  in  a  beef  animal  which  the  butcher  most  desires ;  those  which  the 
cattle  producer  emphasizes  most.  What  is  meant  by  quality  in  beef  cattle  ?  How  may  it  be  detected  ? 
What  does  a  lustrous  hair  coat  denote?  What  part  of  the  carcass  brings  the  highest  price?  What 
the  lowest  price  ?  What  part  of  the  body  is  last  to  be  covered  with  fat  ?  How  do  you  determine  the 
degree  of  fatness  in  beef  cattle  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  381-392.  Ginn  and  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  169-175.  Ginn  and  Company.  Vaughan,  H.  W.  Types  and  Market 
Classes  of  Live  Stock,  pp.  19-51.  R.  G.  Adams  and  Company. 

SCORE   CARD   FOR   BEEF   CATTLE 


Standass  of  Excellence 


Score 


Possible 


Student's 


No.  1 


No.  2 


Corrected 


No.  1  No.  2 


Weight :  estimated lb.,  according  to  age  

Form '.  straight  top  line  and  underline ;  deep,  broad,  low-set ;  compact,  symmetrical 

Quality  :  hair  fine ;    bone  firm  but  strong ;   skin  pliable ;    mellow,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  especially  in 

region  of  valuable  cuts ;  absence  of  ties  and  rolls        

Condition :  prime ;   flesh  deep ;   evidence  of  finish  especially  marked  in  cod,  at  tail-head,  flank,  shoulder, 

and  throat ;  absence  of  ties  or  rolls 

Head :  clean-cut,  symmetrical  ;   quiet  expression ;   mouth  and  nostrils  large,  clear,  and  pladd ;  face  short ; 

forehead  broad,  full ;  ears  medium  size,  fine  texture,  erect        

Neck :  thick,  short,  tapering  neatly  from  shoulder  to  head ;   throat  clean 

Shoulder  vein :  full       

Shoulder  :  well  covered  with  flesh ;   compact         

Brisket :  full,  broad  but  not  too  prominent ;  breast  wide        

Dewlap :  skin  not  loose  and  drooping 

Chest :  deep,  wide,  full 

Crops :  full,  thick,  broad        

Ribs  :  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 

Back :  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed 

Loin :  thick,  broad ;  thickness  extending  well  forward        

Flank :  low  and  full 

Hooks  :  smoothly  covered ;  width  in  proportion  to  other  parts,  but  not  prominent         

Rump :  long,  level,  wide,  and  even ;  tail-head  smooth,  not  patchy       

Pin  bones :  not  prominent,  width  in  proportion  with  other  parts 

Thighs :  full,  fleshed  well  down  to  bock        

Twist :  deep,  full ;  purse  full 

Legs :  straight,  short ;  arm  full ;  shank  fine,  smooth 


Total 


Animal 


Student Date 

[147] 


EXERCISE   75 


JUDGING  THE  DAIRY  COW 

Object.   To  learn  how  to  select  a  profitable  dairy  cow  by  her  form,  temperament,  and  handling  quali- 
ties.  It  is  possible  with  proper  education  and  experience  to  determine  by  these  means,  and  with  very 

few  mistakes,  whether  a  cow  is  a  good,  medium, 
■«  52         __-sT — ~x  or  poor  dairy  cow.    Fine  distinctions  can  be  made 


only  by  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  for  a  year. 


Fig.  1 16.   Outline  of  a  dairy  cow  with  parts  named 

I,  poll;  2,  forehead;  3,  bridge  of  nose;  4,  cheek;  5,  jaw;  6,  neck; 
7,  crest  of  neck;  8,  throat;  g,  dewlap;  10,  brisket;  11,  withers; 
12,  shoulder;  13,  point  of  shoulder;  14,  elbow;  15,  arm  or  forearm; 
16,  knee;  17,  shank;  18,  ankle;  19,  hoof;  20,  fetlock;  21,  crop; 
22,  chine  (back);  23,  loin;  24,  flank;  25,  milk  well;  26,  mammary 
vein  or  milk  vein;  27,  navel;  28,  udder;  29,  teats;  30,  hook  (or 
hook  bone)  hips;  31,  pelvic  arch;  32,  pin  bone  or  rump  bone;  33, 
thigh;  34,  stifle;  33,  hock;  36,  switch  or  brush  of  tail;  37,  escutcheon 


FlG.  117.   Arteries  (In  white)  leading  from  the  heart  to  the 
udder,  and  veins  (in  black)  leading  from  the  udder  to  the  heart 


Materials.   Charts ;  pictures ;  score  cards ;  dairy  cows.    Whenever  possible,  cows  whose  milk  or 
butter  recordj  are  known  should  be  used  so  that  a  check  may  be  had  on  the  student's  judgment. 


Fig.-  1 18.   Outlines  of  dairy  and  beef  types  compared     a,  front  view ;  b,  back  view ;  c,  side  view.    U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Directions.  First  become  acquainted  with  the  parts  of  the  cow  mentioned  in  the  score  card  and  be 
able  to  locate  them  on  the  animal.  A  study  of  the  illustrations  followed  by  a  study  of  the  conformation 
of  the  animals  will  be  helpful. 

Score  a  number  of  dairy  cows,  then  weigh  and  test  the  milk  produced  by  each.  Compare  your 
judgrnent  with  that  of  the  owner  of  the  cows.   Follow  carefully  the  score  card  given  on  the  next  page. 


Fig.  119.   Types  of  udders     a,  type  of  good  udder;  b,  c,  and  d,  types  of  poor  udders.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  353-364.  Ginn  and  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  243-249.  Ginn  and  Company.  Vaughak,  K.  W.  Types  and  Market 
Classes  of  Live  Stock,  pp.  1 13-13 1.   R.  G.  Adams  and  Company. 

[148] 


EXERCISE  75  (Continued) 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  DAIRY  CATTLE 


Scale  of  Points 


GENERAL   APPEARANCE  —  i8  Points 

Form :  inclined  to  be  wedge-shaped 

Quality  :  hair  fine,  soft ;  skin  mellow,  loose,  medium  thickness ;  secretion  yellow ;  bone  clean,  fine        .     . 
Temperament :  nervous,  indicated  by  lean  appearance  when  in  milk 

HEAD    AND    NECK  —  7  Points 

Muzzle :  clean  cut ;  mouth  large ;  nostrils  large 

Eyes :  large,  bright,  full,  mild 

Face ;  lean,  long ;  quiet  expression 

Forehead:  broad 

Ears :  medium  size,  yellow  inside,  fine  texture 

Horns ;  fine  texture,  waxy 

Neck:  fine,  medium  length;  throat  dean ;  light  dewlap 

FORE    QUARTERS  —  s  Points 

Withers :  lean,  thin 

Shoulders :  li^ht,  oblique 

Legs :  straight,  short ;  shank  fine 

BODY  — »6  Points 

Chest :  deep,  low ;  girth  large,  with  full  foreflank 

Barrel :  ribs  broad,  long,  wide  apart ;  large  stomach 

Back :  lean,  straight,  open-jointed 

Loin:  broad 

Navel :  large 

HIND    QUARTERS  — 44  Points 

Hips :  far  apart,  level 

Rump:  long,  wide 

Pin  bones :  high,  wide  apart 

Tail :  long,  slim ;  fine  hair  in  switch , .'    .     .     . 

Thighs :  thin,  long 

Udder :  long,  attached  high,  and  full  behind,  extending  far  in  front  and  full,  flexible ;  quarters  even  and  free 

from  fleshiness 

Teats :  large,  evenly  placed 

Mammary  veins :  large,  long,  tortuous,  branched,  with  double  extension;  large  and  numerous  milk  wells     . 
Legs :  straight ;  shank  fine 

Total 


Score 


Possible      Student's     Corrected 


SCORE  CARD   FOR  DAIRY  HEIFER  CALVES 


Scale  of  Podjts 

Score 

Possible 

Student's 

Corrected 

10 

10 

10 

8 

2 

6 
2 

2 
6 
4 

■  IS 
S 

10 

8 
2 

GENERAL    APPEARANCE  —  40  Points 

Estimated Actual 

Form :   deep,  long,  wide ;   ribs  well  sprung ;    top  and  bottom  lines  parallel ;  rump  long,  level,  and  wide 

Cnlor  ■  (Hstinct  and  characteristic  of  brood 

CONSTITUTION   AND    HEALTH  —  20  Points 
Skin  •  clean,  nliable  and  oiW 

CONDITION  —  30  Points 
BoHv  ■  medium  well  fleshed  indicative  of  dairv  form 

MILK    ORGANS  —  10  Paints 

Mammary  veins :  extending  well  forward  as  determined  by  wells    , 

Total                  

149 


EXERCISE  76 
THE  PRODUCTION  RECORD   OF  A   DAIRY  HERD 


I  of 
hiJ 


Statement.  Some  dairy  cows  return  a  substantial  profit  to  their  owners.  Others,  receiving  the 
same  care,  are  kept  at  a  loss.  The  one  is  a  success,  the  other  a  failure.  As  we  have  already  learned,  we 
may  judge  the  producing  power  of  cows  with  considerable  accuracy  by  their  physical  characteristics. 
However,  it  is  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  discover  to  the  owner  which  of  his  cows  are  most  successful 
and  which  are  failures.  It  is  only  by  weighing  and  testing  the  milk  of  each  cow  for  three  days  in  the 
middle  of  each  month  for  a  year  that  this  information  can  be  obtained.  This  record  may  be  kept  by 
the  farmer  himself,  by  the  agricultural  student  of  the  high  school,  or  through  the  cow-testing  associa- 
tion of  which  the  farmer  may  be  a  member. 

Object.  To  ascertain  by  means  of  an  accurate  milk,  butter  fat,  and  feed  record  the  dairy  value  of 
each  cow. 

Materials.   Cows  to  be  tested ;  Babcock  tester ;  scales ;  blank  on  opposite  page. 

Directions.   A  farmer  had  his  herd  tested  by  the  high-school  students,  and  the  records  of  two  of 
cows  were  as  follows : 

One  cow  produced  16,355  pounds  of  milk,  which  contained  691.7  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  a  year. 
She  consumed  during  the  year  6590  pounds  of  silage,  1760  poimds  of  clover  hay,  and  2428  pounds  of 
mixed  grain.  She  was  on  pasture  six  months.  Another  cow  produced  in  the  same  year  2466  pounds  of 
milk,  which  contained  83.3  pounds  of  butter  fat.  She  consumed  in  the  year  5040  pounds  of  silage, 
1494  pounds  of  clover  hay,  and  1328  pounds  of  mixed  grain.    She  was  also  on  pasture  six  months. 

Compute,  at  the  local  market  prices,  the  cost  of  the  feed  consumed  by  each  animal,  and  the 
value  of  the  milk  and  butter  fat  produced.  Compute  the  return  each  cow  made  for  each  dollar  invested 
in  her  feed.  Compare  the  gross  returns  and  gross  profit  from  a  herd  of  twenty  such  cows  as  the  first 
one ;  from  twenty  such  cows  as  the  second  one. 

Questions.  Is  there  a  wide  difference  in  the  efficiency  of  the  two  cows  tested  as  regards  their 
ability  to  convert  feed  consumed  into  milk  and  butter  fat?  What  did  cow  No.  i  do  with  a  part  of  her 
feed  that  cow  No.  2  did  not  do  ?  How  did  cow  No.  2  use  the  feed  which  did  not  go  for  milk  production  ? 
Which  of  the  two  cows,  No.  i  or  No.  2,  would  you  select  as  the  better  beef  type  of  animal?  Whicji 
is  the  better  type  of  dairy  animal  ? 

Reference.   Eckles,  C.  H.   Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  pp.  132-149.   The  Macmillan  Company. 


Fig.  1 20.   The  patriot  and  the  slacker  cow 
The  cow  whose  picture  is  shown  at  the  left  produced  691  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  a  year ;  the  one  whose  picture  is  shown  at  the  right,  in  tlie 
same  herd  and  given  the  same  care  as  the  others,  produced  only  83  pounds  of  butter  fat  in  one  year.    (Courtesy  College  of  Agriculture,  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin) 

[ISO] 


EXERCISE  76  {Continued) 
RECORD   FOR  THE   MONTH  OF   


Cow  No.  1 

Cow  No.  2 

Cow  No.  3 

Cow  No.  4 

Cow  No.  5 

Cow  No.  6 

14 

A.M.        .      .      . 

P.M.        .       .       . 

IS 

A.M.        .       .       . 

P.M.         .       .       . 

16 

A.M.        .      .      . 

P.M.        .      .      . 

Total 

Per  day 

Total  for  month       .... 

Per  cent  fat 

Total  fat 

Value 

FEED   RECORD 


Cow  Number 

Date 

Kinds  or  Feeds 

Amounts 

Value 

Total  Value  per  Month 

I 

-' 

0 

. 

4 

5 

Fig.  121.   Holstein  Aaggic  Acme  of  Riverside  2d,  No.  164467  Fig.  122.   Guernsey  cow  Langwater,  Dairymaid 

The  cow  shown  in  Fig.  ui  had  a  record  in  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  of  24,682.7  pounds  milk  and  1331.41  pounds  butter  —  the 

world's  record  in  butter  production  for  one  year. 

[151] 


EXERCISE  77 

JUDGING  SWINE  | 

Object.  To  learn  the  characteristics  of  the  different  breeds  and  types  of  hogs ;  to  learn  the  adapta- 
bility of  each  to  different  conditions,  and  to  acquire  skill  and  accuracy  in  choosing  those  animals  which 
most  nearly  conform  to  the  ideal  of  their  class  and  which  will  produce  the  greatest  profit  on  the  farm. 


Fig.  123.   The  lard  and  bacon  types  compared 
At  the  left  a  typical  Berkshire  boar  which  sold  for  $10,000.    At  the  right  a  champion  Tamworth  boar 

Materials.  Pictures  of  prize-winning  hogs  clipped  from  live-stock  journals  and  mounted  on  cards ; 
stereopticon  and  slides ;  score  card  on  opposite  page ;  suitable  animals  for  practice  in  judging. 

Directions.  A  study  of  the  type  and  breed  characteristics  of  swine  and  of  the  score  card  and  charts 
showing  location  of  the  different  parts  of  the  animal  should  be  made  before  beginning  judging  practice. 
The  student  should  be  able  to  recognize  readily  the  leading  breeds  of  swine,  and  special  emphasis 
should  be  placed  upon  those  types  and  breeds  which  are  of  greatest  importance  in  the  community. 
Score  several  animals  of  each  class. 

One  specimen  should  be  as  nearly  perfect  and  in  as  nearly  finished  condition  as  possible,  to  serve  as 
a  type.  The  others  may  be  of  inferior  type  in  one  or  more  important  particulars,  to  emphasize  not  alone  \ 
the  valuable  qualities  to  be  sought  for  but  also  to  fix  in  the  pupil's  mind  the  more  important  defi- 
ciencies to  be  met  with  in  judging  swine. 

At  first  the  score  card  on  the  next  page  should  be  carefully  followed  and  the  ideals  described 
applied  to  as  many  different  animals  as  opportunity  will  permit.  Later,  opportunities  for  practice  in 
competitive  judging  should  be  provided. 

Questions.  What  are  the  principal  differences  in  the  type  and  uses  of  lard  and  bacon  hogs  ?  Sketch 
briefly  the  history,  characteristics,  and  uses  of  the  breeds  of  hogs  common  to  the  United  States.     What 


Fig.  124.   Champion  Duroc  Jersey  barrow  at  the  International        Fig.  125.   Grand  champion  Poland  China  barrow  at  the  Inter- 
Livestock  Exposition  national  Livestock  E.xposition 

1152  1 


EXERCISE  77  (Continued) 

is  the  approximate  territory  of  each  in  the  United  States?  At  what  age  are  pigs  usually  weaned,  and  at 
about  what  weight?  At  what  age  and  at  what  weight  are  hogs  usually  marketed?  What  are  the 
common  diseases  of  swine  in  your  locality,  and  how  are  some  of  the  most  important  ones  controlled  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp,  395-401.  Ginn  and  Company.  Day,  G.  E. 
Productive  Swine  Husbandry,  pp.  9-22.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S.  Types  and  Breeds  of 
Farm  Animals,  pp.  467-554.  Ginn  and  Company.  Vaughan,  H.  W.  Types  and  Market  Classes  of  Live  Stock, 
pp.  237-256.   R.  G.  Adams  and  Company. 


SCORE   C.\RD   FOR   FAT,   OR  LARD,  HOGS 


Scale  of  Points 


Score 


Possible '     Student's     Corrected 


GENERAL   APPEARANCE  —  32  Points 

Weight :  according  to  age 

Estimated Actual pounds 

Form :  deep,  broad,  low,  symmetrical,  compact,  standing  squarely  on  legs 

Quality :  bone  dean ;  hair  silky ;  skin  fine 

Condition :  deep,  firm,  even  covering  flesh,  giving  smooth  finish      .     .     . 


HEAD    AND    NECK  —  6  Points 

Snout :  medium  to  short,  not  coarse 

Eyes:  full,  mild,  bright,  large 

Face :  short ;  cheeks,  full ;  without  wrinkles 

Ears :  fine,  medium  size ;  soft,  neatly  attached 

Jowl :  strong,  neat,  broad,  full  to  the  shoulders 

Neck :  thick,  short,  broad  on  top 


FORE    QUARTERS - 
Shoulders :  broad,  deep,  full,  smooth,  compact  on  top  . 

Breast:  wide,  roomy 

Leg :  straight,  short,  strong,  wide  apart,  well  set  .     .     . 
Pasterns:  strong,  straight,  upright 


II  Points 


BODY  —  32  Points 

Chest :  deep,  broad,  large  girth 

Sides :  full  and  smooth  from  hams  to  shoulders,  close  ribbed 
Back :  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed      .... 

Loin :  wide,  thick 

Belly :  straight,  wide 

FUnk :  even  with  underline 


HIND    QUARTERS  —  19  Points 

Hips:  smooth 

Rump :  long,  wide,  level,  well  filled  out 

Hams :  heavily  fleshed,  deep,  wide,  thick 

Legs :  straight,  short,  strong,  wide  apart,  well  set 

Pasterns:  strong,  straight,  upright 


2 

3 
10 


Total  . 


Fig.  1 26.   A  chart  for  teaching  names  of  the  parts  of  the  hog         Fig.  i  27.  Outline  for  chart  for  teaching  wholesale  cuts  of  pork 

In  Fig.  126,  I  denotes  the  snout;  2,  eye;  3,  face;  4,  ear;   5,  jowl;  6,  neck;  7,  shoulder;  8,  foreleg;    9,  hindleg;   10,  breast;   11,  chestline; 
12,  back;   13,  loin;  14,  side;  15,  tail;  j6,  fore  flank;   17,  hind  flank;    18,  hip;   ig,  rump;  20,  belly;   21,  ham;  22,  stifle;  33,  hock;   24,  pas- 
terns; 25,  dewclaws;  26,  foot.     In  Fig.  137,  I  represents  the  head ;   2,  shoulder;  3,  loin;  4,  belly;  $,  ham 

[153  1 


EXERCISE   78 


JUDGING  SHEEP 


i'lG.  128.   The  mullun  lypc 

The  champion  coUege-bred  Southdown  wether  at  the  International 
Livestock  Exposition.  Bred  and  exliibited  by  the  University  of  Ohio 


Statement.  Sheep  may  be  classified  according  to  type  and  breed  or  according  to  how  they  are  sold  on 
the  market.  According  to  types  or  breed,  sheep  are  classified  either  as  fine-wool  type  or  as  mutton 
type.   According  to  market  demands,  sheep  are  classified  as  fat  or  mutton,  feeders,  or  breeders. 

Object.  To  become  familiar  with  the  classification  of  sheep  and  to  be  able  to  judge  quickly  and 
accurately  the  value  and  comparative  worth  of  an  animal. 

Material.  Pictures  of  pure-bred  sheep  clipped 
from  Hve-stock  magazines  and  mounted  on  cards; 
stereopticon  and  shdes ;  score  card  on  opposite  page ; 
suitable  animals  for  scoring. 

Directions.  In  handling  live  sheep,  seize  them 
by  the  leg ;  never  catch  them  by  the  fleece.  The 
fleece  is  examined  for  quality  over  the  heart,  where 
the  wool  fibers  are  finest,  on  the  lower  outside  part 
of  the  thigh,  where  the  wool  is  coarsest,  and  at  the 
mid-ribs,  where  the  fiber  is  of  medium  fineness. 
Select  a  natural  seam  in  the  fleece,  opening  it  with 
the  backs  of  the  two  hands  and  pressing  the  fleece 
back  so  as  to  expose  the  fiber  its  full  length  and 
also  to  expose  the  skin,  which  should  be  inspected 
for  color  and  condition. 

Score  animals  at  first   according  to  the  score 

card  given  on  the  next  page  and  later  judge  a  number  of  animals,  in  each  case  giving  reasons  for 

your  placings. 

Questions.  Why  has  the  sheep  been  called  the  animal  with  a  "  Golden  Hoof  "  ?  In  what  important 
ways  did  the  sheep  help  man  on  his  way  toward  a  civilized  life  ?  What  are  the  distinctive  types  of  sheep, 
in  what  respects  do  they  differ,  and  where  is  each 
principally  found  ?  Of  what  service  is  the  sheep  in 
a  system  of  clean  farming  ?  What  pet  animal  most 
seriously  interferes  with  the  development  of  the 
sheep  industry  ?  What  is  the  remedy  ?  About  how 
much  wool  is  produced  by  a  sheep  in  a  year  ?  What 
is  its  worth  at  your  local  market  ?  What  is  the  ap- 
proximate live  weight  of  the  mutton  sheep  when 
mature  ?  of  the  wool  type  ?  What  breeds  of  sheep 
are  most  common  in  your  neighborhood  ?  Which  is 
best  adapted  to  local  conditions  ?  In  what  respects 
might  the  methods  of  handling  sheep  in  the  neigh- 
borhood be  improved  ?  Contrast  the  methods  and 
results  of  one  or  two  of  the  best  sheep  raisers  of  the  neighborhood  with  those  of  the  average,  and  write  a 
statement  showing  the  particulars  in  which  general  improvement  of  the  average  might  be  made. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  409-417.  Ginn  and  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S. 
Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals,  pp.  333-455.  Ginn  and  Company.  Vaughan,  H.  W.  Types  and  Market 
Classes  of  Live  Stock,  pp.  159-179.  R.  G.  Adams  and  Company.  Gay,  C.  W.  The  Breeds  of  Live  Stock, 
pp.  327-380.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[154] 


Fig.  129.   The  fine-wool  type.  RambouUlet  Ram  "  Laramie  " 

and  his  world  record  fleece  which  weighed  46^  pounds  at  fifteen 

months'  growth 

Owned  by  the  Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 


i 


EXERCISE  78  (Continue^ 
SCORE   CARD   FOR   MUTTON  SHEEP 


ScAis  OF  Points 


Score 


Possible      Student's    Corrected 


GENERAL   APPEARANCE  —  38  Points 

Weiglit :  according  to  age 

Form :  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low-set,  stylish 

Quality :  bone  clean-cut ;  hair  silky ;  skin  pink ;  offal  light 

Condition,  or  Finish :  covering  deep,  even,  firm,  free  from  patches ;    dock  thick ;    purse  and  flank  full ; 
neck  thick 

HEAD   AND    NECE  —  6  Points 

Head :  short,  clean-cut ;  forehead  broad  and  full ;  eyes  large,  clear ;  ears  fine,  alert ;  muzzle  large ;  lips 

thin ;  nostrils  large,  open 

Neck :  short,  thick,  free  from  folds ;  shoulder  vein  full 

FORE    QUARTERS  — 6  Points 

Shoulders :  smooth,  evenly  covered,  compact  on  top 

Brisket :  broad,  neat 

Legs :  short,  straight,  wide  apart ;  forearm  full ;  shank  smooth,  fine 

BODY  —  33  Points 

Chest :  wide,  deep,  full      .     .     : 

Back :  broad,  long,  straight,  thickly  covered ;  ribs  well-sprung,  close  together 

Loin:  broad,  thick,  long,  strong 

HIND    QUARTERS  —  15  Points 

Hips:  wide,  level,  smooth 

Rump:  long,  level,  wide 

Thighs :  deep,  wide,  full 

Twist:  deep,  full 

Legs :  short,  straight,  wide  apart ;  shank  smooth,  fine 

WOOL  —  12  Points 

Quantity :  long,  dense,  even . 

Quality:  pure,  fine,  uniform,  free  from  dead  or  black  fiber;  crimp  close,  regular 

Condition :  clean,  bright,  lustrous,  sound,  soft,  light  color ;  yolk  plentiful 

Total 


10 
10 


S 
10 


wn 

|B 

^^^.■^^ 

;fi 

W^l. 

1    ;:csa£^"- 

— "^ — I — 

m-^k>mmma^ma^ 

f^^--^^r:m 

*■      ,f...V'-                  1 

.    V     ^      .  ] 

Fig.  130.   Yearling  Shropshires 
Winners  of  first  prize  at  the  Panama  Pacific  International  Exposition.   Bred  and  exhibited  by  San  Ramon  Rancho,  San  Ramon,  California 


[155] 


EXERCISE   79 
A  STUDY  OF  THE  CONSTITUTIONAL  VIGOR  IN  FOWLS 


^^^^^i^ 

G^-  ©^ 

^^Hl^ 

Co)      J^^H 

^^Eik. 

^fl^H 

0^^ 

l^i^^^^H 

(2?i 

®i®  --. 

Fig.  131.    A  White  Wyandotte  cock,  showing  con- 
stitutional vigor 

The  points  of  a  fowl  are  marked  and  are  as  follows : 
o,  beak;  i,  comb;  2,  face;  3,  wattles;  4,  ear  lobe;  5, 
hackle;  6,  breast;  7,  back;  8,  saddle;  g,  saddle  feathers ; 
10,  sickle  feathers  of  tail;  11,  lesser  sickles;  12,  tail  cov- 
erts; 13,  body  and  fluff  section;  14,  fluff;  15,  wing;  16, 
point  of  heel  which  is  the  division  between  the  breast  and 
the  body  and  fluff  sections;  17,  thigh;  18,  hack  joint; 
ig,  shank;  20,  spur;   21,  toes 


Statement.  Only  fowls  which  have  much  constitutional 
vigor  are  good  producers.  All  the  organs  of  the  body,  es- 
pecially those  which  have  to  do  with  digestion,  respiration, 
and  reproduction,  and  the  nervous  system  which  controls 
these  organs,  must  be  healthy. 

Object.  To  learn  to  judge  fowls  in  respect  to  their  con- 
stitutional vigor. 

Materials.   Fowls  to  be  judged ;  score  card  on  page  159. 

Directions.  In  accordance  with  the  instructions  given 
score  a  number  of  fowls. 
Indicate  in  the  proper 
blank  space  the  cuts 
given  each  part  and 
explain  by  underlining 
the  corresponding  words, 
under  Remarks. 

I.  .Make  a  careful 
study  of  the  actions  and 
movements  of  the  fowls 
to  be  judged,  as  these 
are  probably  the  best 
indications  we  have  of 
their  physical  condition. 


Fowls  that  are  weak  are  likely  to  be  inactive  and  dull,  and  more 
likely  to  sit  than  to  stand.  They  seldom  range  to  any  extent  in 
search  of  forage  and  do  not  scratch  in  search  of  feed. 

The  loudness  and  frequency  of  the  crow  of  the  male  and  the 
cackle  of  the  female  are  indications  of  physical  strength  and 
superiority.   Weak  fowls  seldom  crow  or  sing. 

2.  Observe  the  form  of  the  body  for  evidences  of  strength  or 
weakness.  The  strong  bird  has  a  bright,  prominent  eye,  a  well- 
developed,  blocky  body,  bright  plumage,  an  erect  carriage,  bright 
comb  and  wattles,  and  should  be  active  and  sprightly  in  move- 
ment. A  long  neck,  thin  beak,  narrow  head,  long,  slender  body, 
long  legs  and  thighs,  or  a  stilted  appearance  indicate  lack  of 
constitutional  vigor. 

3.  In  the  young  chick  low  vitality  is  indicated  by  a  stunted 
growth,  by  slow  feathering,  a  pronounced  crowlike  beak,  drooping 
wings  and  head,  and  a  low-squatting  walk. 


Fig.    132.    A  heavy-  and  a  light-laying 

bird  compared 
The  hen  shown  above  is  Lady  Eglantine. 
She  laid  314  eggs  in  one  year  and  holds  the 
world's  record.  The  hen  shown  below  laid  56 
eggs  in  a  year  when  well  cared  for.  Notice 
the  long  straight  beak  of  the  poor  layer  as 
compared  with  the  stout  curved  beak  of  Lady 
Eglantine;  also  the  comparatively  undevel- 
oped comb  and  wattles  of  the  poor  layer  and 
the  lack  of  body  capacity  as  compared  with 
the  world^s  record  hen 


Questions.  Define  and  give  the  advantages  of  selection.   What 
are  some  of  the  causes  for  lack  of  vigor  in  fowls?  What  are  some  of  the  signs  of  vitality  and  the 
lack  of  it?  What  does  the  action  of  a  fowl  indicate  and  how  may  it  be  judged? 


References.  Lippincott,  W.  A.    Poultry  Production,  pp.  128-138.  Lea  and  Febiger.    Lewis,  H.  R 
Productive  Poultry  Husbandry,  p.  256.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company.   Bulletin  45,  Cornell  Reading  Course, 

[156] 


J 


EXERCISE  79  (Continued) 
STANDARD  AND   SCORE   CARD   FOR  JUDGING  CONSTITUTIONAL  VIGOR  IN  FOWLS 


Value 

Cut 

Remarks 

General  appearance.   The  bird  shall  give  the  im- 
pression of  strength  and  vigor.   It  shall  be  styl- 
ish in  carriage  and  active  in  movement.   The 
body  must  be  compact  and  well  balanced    .     . 

IS 

Not  strong,  lacks  style  in  carriage,  not 
active,  gangling,  not  symmetrical 

Condition.   The  fowl  shall  be  free  from  diseases 
or  deformity  and  the  plumage  smooth,  clean, 
and  glossy 

10 

Diseased,   deformed.   Plumage   rough, 
dirty,  lacks  luster 

Head.   Shape  (4)    The  head  should  be  carried  well 
up  and  be  broad,  deep,  and  of  medium  length 
for  the  breed 

Beak  (4)    The  beak  shall  be  strong,  stout, 
medium  in  length,  well  curved,  and  broad  at  its 
base 

Eyes  (2)  The  eyes  shall  be  strong,  large,  full, 
brilliant,  and  clear 

Face  (3)   The  face  shall  be  full  and  bright 
red  in  color 

Comb    and    Wattles  (6)     The    comb   and 
wattles  must  be  well  developed,  firm,  smooth 
in  texture,  and  bright  red  in  color 

19 

Poorly  carried,  narrow,  shallow,  long 

Beak  wide,  long,  straight,  narrow 

Eyes  weak,  dull,  sunken 

Face  lacks  fullness,  poor  color 

Comb   and  wattles   poorly  developed, 
poor  color,  coarse,  flabby 

Neck.   The  neck  should  give  the  appearance  of 
strength  and  be  well  arched  and  well  feathered  . 

3 

Weak,  straight,  poorly  feathered 

Back.   The  back  shall  be  long  and  broad  for  the 
breed.   It  shall  be  flat  at  the  shoulders  and  the 
width  carried  well  back  towards  the  tail.     The 
oil  gland  at  the  base  of  the  tail  shall  be  well 
developed        

10 

Short,  narrow,  rounding.   OU  gland  not 
well  developed 

Wings.   The  wings  shall  be  medium  in  size,  well 
folded,  and  carried  close  to  the  body  .... 

2 

Large,  poorly  folded,  jx)orly  carried 

Tail.   The  tail  shall  be  well  feathered,  well  spread, 
and  not  drooped       

2 

Not    well    feathered,    poorly    spread, 
drooping 

Breast.  The  breast  shall  be  broad,  full,  and  round- 
ing      

10 

Narrow,  peaked,  sharp 

Body  and  Fluff.   This  section  shall  be  wide,  deep, 
and  long,  showing  evidence  of  capacity.   The 
abdomen  shall  be  well  tucked  up  and  firm.  The 
keel  shall  be  straight 

14 

Narrow,  shallow,  short,  crooked  keel. 
Abdomen  flabby 

Shanks.  The  shanks  shall  be  stout,  straight,  and 
smooth        

5 

Rough,  crooked,  weak 

Thighs.   The  thighs  shall  be  stout,  straight,  well 
muscled  and  set  well  apart  at  the  hip  and  hock 
joints 

5 

Weak,  not  parallel,  poorly  muscled,  set 
too  close  together 

Toes.   The  toes  shall  be  stout,  straight,  and  smooth. 
The  nails  shall  be  short,  strong,  and  well  worn  . 

S 

Crooked,  weak,  rough.    Nails  long 

Total       

100 

[157 


EXERCISE  80 


JUDGING  EGGS 

Statement.  Several  million  dollars  are 
lost  each  year  in  the  United  States  through 
the  improper  handling  of  eggs.  It  is  only 
recently  that  we  have  begun  to  sell  eggs 
according  to  grade  and  quality.  This 
method  of  marketing  eggs,  together  with 
the  critical  judging  of  eggs,  will  do  much 
to  educate  people  in  the  proper  care  of  this 
important  food  material. 

Object.  To  determine  the  market  clas- 
sifications and  value  of  commercial  eggs. 

Materials.  Eggs  of  different  sizes, 
colors,  shapes,  and  degrees  of  cleanhness 
and  freshness  for  detailed  study;  a  number 
of  selected  exhibits  of  a  dozen  eggs  each, 
for  comparative  judging ;  a  candhng  device. 

Directions,  i.  Study  the  explanations 
given  in  the  score  card  on  the  following 
page  and  score  exhibits  in  accordance  with 
the  plan  given.  After  scoring  exhibits  com- 
pare your  score  with  that  of  the  instructor 
and  fill  out  the  corrected  score  column. 
Discuss  fully  the  points  wherein  your  score 
varies  from  that  of  the  instructor. 
2.    Skill  may  be  acquired  in  determining  the  freshness  of  eggs  by  means  of  the  candling  device.' 

In  the  newly  laid  egg  the  contents  completely  fill  the  shell.     When  the  egg  has  cooled  a  small  air 

space  is  observable  at  the  large  end.     As  the  egg 

grows  older  the  space  grows  larger. 

Questions.  Why  does  the  air  space  in  an  egg 
enlarge  with  age  ?  What  does  this  show  regarding 
the  porosity  of  the  eggshell  ?  At  what  temperature 
should  eggs  be  kept  ?  Can  eggs  be  properly  kept 
in  contact  with  musty  or  unpleasant  odors?  Ex- 
plain. In  judging  exhibits  why  is  uniformity  of 
size,  shape,  and  color  important?  What  happens 
if  an  egg  is  kept  at  a  high  temperature  (ioo°  F.) 
for  a  few  days  ?  for  three  weeks  ?  Should  eggs 
be  washed  ?  Explain  what  portion  of  the  eggshell 
is  removed  by  washing  and  how  this  affects  the 
keeping  quality  of  the  egg. 

References.  Lippincott,  W.  A.  Poultry  Produc- 
tion, pp.  463-480.  Lea  &  Febiger.  Waters,  H.  J. 
Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  431.   Ginn  and  Company. 

[158] 


Fig.  133.    Comparison  of  ungraded  and  graded  eggs 

Those  shown  above  (ungraded)  are  not  uniform  in  size,  shape,  or  color,  and 

many  of  them  are  soiled ;  those  shown  below  (graded)  are  standard  in  size, 

color,  form,  and  condition 


Fig.  134.   A  convenient  candling  device 


EXERCISE  80  (Continued) 
SCORE   CARD   FOR  EGGS 


Value 

Cut 

Remarks 

Weight.   One  dozen  eggs  should  weigh  be- 
tween twenty-four  and  twenty-six  ounces 

l8 

• 

Too  light,  too  heavy 

Uniformity.   The  whole  dozen  shall  be  uniform 
in  size  and  shape  and  color 

6 

Not  even  in  color,  size,  or 
shape 

Shell  shape.   The  shell  should  be  symmetrical 
with  reference  to  the  longitudinal  axis.   It 
shall  be  oval  in  general  outline  but  distinctly 
more  pointed  at  one  end  than  at  the  other. 
It  shall  be  free  from  ridges  or  roughness   . 

6 

Same  size  at  both  ends,  ridged, 
too  long,  too  short,  too 
round,  uneven,  unsym- 
metrical 

Shell  color.   The  color  should  represent  the 
respective  breed.   If  white,  the  shell  is  to 
be  free  from  gloss  or  creaminess,  showing 
what  is   ordinarily   spoken   of   as    "  dead 
white."   If  brown,  it  shall  be  of  such  shade 
as  represents  a  fair  average  of  the  respective 
breed.   It  shall  show  the  bloom  of  a  new- 
laid  egg.   Each  egg  in  the  dozen  of  what- 
ever color  shall  be  free  from  spots  and  even 
in  color  throughout 

4 

Too  light,  too  dark,  imeven, 
not  clear,  spotted 

Shell  condition  and  texture.   The  shell  shall 
be  sound,  perfectly  clean,  and  unwashed. 
It  shall  be  smooth  and  fresh  from  excres- 
cences of  any  sort.   It  shall  be  of  such 
strength  and  thickness  as  to  afford  reason- 
able protection  to  the  contents     .... 

i8 

Washed,  dirty,  cracked, 
shiny,  lacks  bloom,  tough, 
thick,  thin,  rough 

Contents,  fullness.   The  contents  of  the  egg 
shall  nearly  fill  the  shell.   The  air  cell  shall 
be  barely  visible  at  the  large  end  of  the  egg 
and  stationary       

12 

Shrunken,  air  cell  too  large, 
misplaced,  or  movable 

Contents,    yolk.   The   yolk   shall   be   dimly 
visible  before  the  candle.   It  shall  be  free 
from  spots,  clots,  or  bloodrings,  and  show 
no  signs  of  heating  or  incubation.   It  must 
float  freely  in  the  white  when  the  egg  is 
revolved  before  the  candle       

i8 

Heated,  bloodrings,  incu- 
bated, stuck  clots,  spots 

Contents,  white.   The  white  shall  be  viscous, 
clear,  and  free  from  spots.   The  tendency 
to  be  weak  and  watery  shaU  be  severely  dis- 
criminated against 

i8 

Weak,  watery,  off  color,  mold 

Total 

lOO 

[159] 


EXERCISE  81 


MICROSCOPIC  EXAMINATION  OF  MILK 

Statement.  Whole  milk  after  having  most  of  the  butter  fat  removed  as  cream  is  called  skim  milk. 
Skim  milk  is  valuable  as  feed  for  calves,  pigs,  chickens,  etc.,  as  well  as  exceedingly  nutritious  for  man. 
It  should  be  more  generally  used  as  a  human  food.  Skim  milk  contains  all  the  food  materials  found  in 
the  whole  milk  except  the  small  percentage  of  butter  fat,  averaging  less  than  4  per  cent.   The  removal 

of  butter  fat  changes  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  result- 
ing products. 

Olaject.  To  determine  the  physical  characteristics  of  skim 
milk,  whole  milk,  and  cream. 

Materials.  Three  test  tubes  or  shallow  vessels ;  samples  of 
skim  milk,  whole  milk,  and  cream,  respectively. 

Directions.  Study  the  appearance  of  each  sample  and  de- 
scribe the  differences.  Place  a  slide  showing  skim  milk  imder 
the  microscope  and  observe  the  size,  shape,  and  number  of  the 
fat  globules.  Also  note  the  presence  of  any  foreign  materials, 
as  dirt  or  bacteria.  In  like,  manner  observe  the  slides  showing 
whole  milk  and  cream.  Compare  the  three  and  explain  the 
reasons  for  the  differences  noted. 

Examine  under  the  microscope  milk  just  drawn  from  a  cow 
recently  fresh.  Examine  milk  from  a  cow  of  the  same  breed 
which  has  been  in  milk  for  several  months.  Compare  the  two 
samples  as  to  size,  number,  and  color  of  the  fat  globules.  Also 
compare  the  fat  content  of  milk  samples  from  different  breeds 
of  cattle. 

Make  drawings  on  the  opposite  page  of  what  the  microscope 
shows  in  the  case  of  skim  milk ;  in  the  case  of  cream. 


o  -5J»* 

'      °0  '    ftSLO 


^:mv^- 


;  «,  o(P 


'       o 


0°  o.      ■» 


OS 


<^ 


-    o  o     =   .     .  .0 


Fig.  135.   Butter-fat  globules 

Reading  from  above  downward,  samples  are  shown 
of  cream,  milk,  and  skimmed  milk  under  the  same 
magnification.   Proportionate  numbers  of  fat  glob- 
ules are  shown 


Questions.  Describe  the  fat  globules.  What  is  their  average 
size  ?  Does  the  length  of  time  a  cow  has  been  in  milk  influence  in  any  way  the  fat  globules  ?  If  bac- 
teria are  present  in  the  sample,  explain  from  what  sources  they  might  have  come.  Which  is  the  heavier, 
skim  milk,  whole  milk,  or  cream?  Which  material  contains  the  greater  proportionate  mmiber 
of  fat  globules,  whole  milk  or  cream?  Explain  the  reason  for  the  difference  and  how  the  con- 
centration of  globules  occurs  when  milk  is  set,  and  how  it  is  brought  about  when  the  centrifugal 
separator  is  used.  Did  you  observe  any  difference  in  the  size  of  the  fat  globules  in  a  given  sample, 
or  were  they  all  of  uniform  size  ?  Did  you  find  that  the  globules  were  uniformly  larger  in  some 
samples  than  in  others  ?  Are  they  larger  in  the  milk  of  some  breeds  than  in  that  from  others  ?  Which 
breed  produces  milk  containing  the  largest  globules,  which  the  smallest?  State  what  difference 
there  is  between  the  size  of  the  globules  of  skim  milk  and  cream.  As  a  rule,  which  globules  are 
left  in  the  skim  milk,  the  smaller  or  the  larger  ones,  and  why?  What  is  the  relation  between 
the  size  of  fat  globules  and  the  rapidity  and  completeness  of  creaming  either  by  the  gravity  or  the 
centrifugal  method  ?    Name  two  methods  by  which  cream  may  be  removed  from  milk. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  372-375.  Ginn  and  Company.  Eckles  and 
Warren.  Dairy  Farming,  pp.  168-172.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Weng,  H.  H.  Milk  and  its  Products, 
pp.  16-35.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

Note.  Slides  of  skimmed  milk,  whole  milk,  and  cream  should  be  prepared  previous  to  the  class  period  and  adjusted 
in  the  microscope. 

[160] 


Y 


i 


EXERCISE  82 

MILK  TESTING 

Statement.  Before  the  Babcock  method  of  testing  milk  was  discovered  milk  was  purchased  by  the 
gallon  or  poxmd  without  regard  to  its  richness.  Thus,  for  example,  milk  which  contained  a  small 
amount  of  butter  fat  brought  as  much  as  that  which  contained  a  great  amount  of  fat.  Now  most 
of  the  milk  sold  on  the  market  is  tested  for  fat,  and  its  value  is  determined  by  its  fat  content  and  its 
freshness  and  cleanliness.  In  a  word,  milk  is  now  sold  on  its  merits.  The  dairyman  who  takes 
the  pains  necessary  to  produce  rich,  clean  milk  is  rewarded,  and  the  careless  dairyman  is  penalized,     j 

Object.  To  test  different  milk  samples  and  milk  products. 

Materials.  Babcock  tester,  milk-testing  bottles,  and  cream-testing  bottles;  sulphuric  acid 
(commercial,  Sp.  Gr.  1.82);  17.5-cubic-centimeter,  i8-cubic-centimeter,  and  17.6-cubic-centimeter 
pipettes;  milk,  cream,  and  cheese  to  be  tested. 

Directions.  To  test  for  butter  fat  in  milk  proceed  as  follows :  Clean  a  milk-test  bottle  (graduated 
from  I  to  10)  and  a  17.6-cubic-centimeter  pipette.  By  suction  draw  into  the  pipette  17.6  cubic  cen- 
timeters of  milk  to  be  tested.  In  securing  the  sample  be  careful  that  the  milk  is  well  stirred,  so  that  the 
sample  tested  will  be  representative  of  the  entire  amount.  Holding  the  milk-test  bottle  at  an  angle  let 
the  milk  rim  from  the  pipette  into  the  bottle.  In  like  maimer,  with  the  17.5-cubic-centimeter  pipette 
add  commercial  sulphuric  acid.  Let  it  run  down  the  neck  of  the  bottle  so  as  to  wash  down  any  milk 
that  may  be  in  the  neck.  Holding  the  bottle  by  the  neck  give  it  a  gentle  rotary  motion  until  the  acid 
and  milk  are  mixed.  When  mixed  properly  they  should  have  a  rich  chocolate-brown  color.  Repeat  for 
other  samples.  Place  the  bottles  in  the  tester  and  whirl  for  five  minutes  at  the  speed  indicated  on  the 
tester.  Fill  each  bottle  to  the  neck  with  warm  water  and  whirl  again  for  two  minutes.  Add  warm 
water  until  the  butter  fat  stands  in  the  bottle  neck  and  whirl  again  for  one  minute.  Remove  and 
read  the  test. 

For  testing  skim  milk,  where  it  is  desirable  to  read  the  small  fractions  of  i  per  cent,  two  forms  of 
bottles  have  been  devised.  In  one  two  pipettes  full  of  milk  are  used  and  the  graduations  have  half  the 
ordinary  value ;  in  the  other  the  bottle  has  two  necks,  one  for  the  introduction  of  milk  and  acid,  and  the 
other,  extremely  narrow  in  size,  in  which  the  fat  is  measured.  The  ordinary  milk-test  bottle  may  be  used 
if  neither  of  these  can  be  had. 

1.  Test  a  milk  sample  taken  from  the  first  milk  drawn  from  a  cow  and  a  sample  taken  from  the 
milk  last  drawn. 

2.  Test  milk  from  a  Jersey  cow,  a  Holstein,  a  Guernsey,  an  Ayrshire,  a  Shorthorn,  a  Hereford. 

3.  Test  a  sample  of  buttermilk. 

4.  Test  a  sample  of  skim  milk  taken  (i)  from  milk  skimmed  by  hand  and  (2)  from  separated 
milk  from  different  separators  in  the  community. 

5.  Test  cream  in  the  same  manner  as  milk,  only  use  an  i8-cubic-centimeter  pipette  and  a  cream- 
test  bottle,  which  is  graduated  to  35  per  cent  or  more. 

6.  Test  butter  and  cheese  for  butter  fat,  only  weigh  out  18  grams  instead  of  measuring.  Place 
it  in  the  bottle,  add  a  Uttle  water  and  then  add  acid  to  dissolve  it.   Proceed  as  in  the  case  of  milk. 

Questions.  In  what  way  does  the  acid  affect  the  milk?  What  should  a  good  sample  of  milk  test? 
What  is  the  value  of  testing  milk?  How  does  the  creamery  determine  the  value  of  the  cream  pur- 
chased ?  Is  there  any  advantage  in  the  farmer's  allowing  a  large  amount  of  milk  to  go  to  the  creamery 
with  the  cream?  Does  he  lose  the  milk?  How  might  he  save  a  part  of  it? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  372-379.  Ginn  and  Company.  Eckles  and 
Warren.  Dairy  Farming,  pp.  59,  196-199.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Stockd^g,  W.  A.  Manual  of  Milk 
Production,  pp.  109-136.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

r]621 


EXERCISE  82  {Continued) 
MILK  TESTING 


Kind  of  Material 

Source  of  Sample 

Date  Sample  Was  Taken 

Butter  Fat  Test 

,. 

[163] 


EXERCISE  83 


METHODS  OF  PRODUCING  SANITARY  MILK 


Fig.  136.   Types  of  milk  pails 

The  pail  at  the  left  is  the  better,  because  the  hood 

helps  to  keep  the  dirt  out  of  the  milk 


Statement.   The  souring  of  milk  is  due  to  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  the  milk.   The  more  numerous 
the  bacteria  in  the  milk  the  more  rapidly  it  sours.   Bacteria  which  sour  milk  are  not  generally  present 
in  the  milk  before  it  is  taken  from  the  cow,  but  enter  the  milk  in  dirt,  from  the  air,  etc.  There  should 
be  as  little  dust  as  possible  in  the  air  of  the  barn  at  milking  time,  and  no  dirt  should  be  permitted  to  ' 
gain  access  to  the  pail. 

Object.   To  determine  some  of  the  factors  which  influence  the  keeping  quality  of  milk. 

Materials.  Cows  which  the  pupils  may  milk;  open  and  covered  milk  pails ;  place  for  cooling  milk; 
a  number  of  one-half-pint  bottles. 

Directions,  i .  Milk  one  cow,  using  for  the  milk  container  an  open  pail.  Milk  another,  using  a  partly 
closed  pail.  Have  both  pails  steriUzed  immediately  before  using  them.  At  once  take  samples  of  milk 

from  each  pail,  keeping  the  samples  in  clean,  steriUzed  milk 
bottles,  well  sealed.  Place  the  two  samples  under  the  same  con- 
ditions of  heat  and  light.   Observe  the  results. 

2.  Let  sour  nailk  stand  for  a  while  in  each  of  two  milk 
bottles.  Later  wash  one  bottle  and  sterilize  it  with  boiling 
water.  Drain  the  water  and  do  not  dry  with  a  cloth.  Pour 
the  milk  out  of  the  other  bottle  but  do  not  wash  it.  Fill  the 
two  bottles  with  fresh  milk  from  the  same  pail,  seal  and  set 
aside  under  the  same  conditions.   Observe  results. 

3.  Obtain  two  samples  of  fresh  milk;  cool  one  sample  im- 
mediately after  milking  and  leave  the  other  sample  to  cool 
gradually  at  room  temperature.   Otherwise,  keep  the  samples 

under  the  same  conditions  and  observe  results  as  to  the  rate  at  which  each  sours. 
At  the  end  of  twelve  hours,  observe  each  sample  taken  above  as  follows : 

a.  Taste  each  sample  and  record  whether  it  is  sweet  or  sour  to  the  taste. 

b.  Place  a  definite  portion  (20  cubic  centimeters)  of  each  sample  in  a  white  dish  and  add  phenol- 
phthalein  solution,  drop  by  drop  from  a  burette,  with  constant  stirring.  Note  and  record  the  number 
of  cubic  centimeters  of  solution  added  before  the  milk  changed  color.  Since  phenolphthalein  solution 
turns  red  in  the  presence  of  acid,  this  test  tells  which  milk  is  the  sourer.  I 

Questions.  How  do  bacteria  gain  access  to  milk  ?  Mention  several  methods  by  which  the  number  of 
bacteria  in  milk  may  be  lessened.  Does  cooling  milk  at  once  after  milking  decrease  the  number  of 
bacteria  entering  the  milk  or  does  it  decrease  the  rapidity  with  which  they  multiply?  Might  dirty 
milk  be  kept  sweet  for  a  reasonable  length"  of  time  if  kept  at  a  low  temperature  ?  How  should  milking 
utensils  be  treated  to  keep  them  clean  and  also  free  from  bacteria?  How  may  dirt  largely  be  prevented 
from  gaining  access  to  milk?  What  precautions  should  the  dairyman  take  with  regard  to  his 
clothing  when  milking  cows  or  handling  milk?  What  precautions  should  he  take  regarding  his 
hands?  With  regard  to  the  cleanhness  of  the  cow's  body,  udder,  and  teats?  What  is  the  objection 
to  feeding  hay  to  cows  in  the  milking  barn  just  before  milking  time  ?  What  are  the  objections  to 
sweeping  the  barn  at  that  time?  Can  you  state  the  grades  of  market  milk  and  what  are  the 
quaUties  required  in  each?  Wliat  is  the  relative  market  price  of  each?  Describe  the  conditions 
xmder  which  grade  A  milk  may  be  produced.  \ 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  374-  Ginn  and  Company.  Harper,  M.  W. 
Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools,  pp.  157-159.  The'Macmillan  Company.  Eckles  and  Warren.  Dairy  Farm- 
ing, pp.  177-183.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[164] 


EXERCISE  83  (Continued) 
SANITARY  MILK  PRODUCTION 


Sample  Ndicbek 

How  Treated 

Taste  of  Sample 

Amount  of  Phenol- 

phthaledj  solution 

Used 

Amount  of  Acm 

Large 

Medium 

Small 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

I 


[16S] 


PART  VI.   FEEDING   FARM   AT^IMALS 


EXERCISE  84 


PLANTS  AS  FOOD  FOR  ANIMALS 


Fig.  137.   The  food  components  of  shelled 
com 


Statement.  Plant  substances  are  the  original  source  of  nourishment  for  animals.  The  science  of 
feeding  rests  upon  our  knowledge  of  these  substances  and  of  the  needs  of  animals.  Animal  food 
compounds  are  classified  as  water,  ash,  protein,  fat,  nitrogen-free  extract,  and  crude  fiber.  , 

Object.  To  determine  the  presence  of  some  of  the  food  compounds  in  plant  and  animal  substances. 

Materials.  Potato ;  white  of  an  egg ;  balances ;  evaporating  dish ;  nitric  acid ;  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid;    ammonia;   iodine  solution;    ether  or  gasoline;    FehHng's  solution;   a-Naphthol  solu- 
tion; sulphuric  acid;  substances  containing  grape  sugar  or  cane 
sugar;  other  plant  and  animal  substances  to  be  tested. 

Directions,  i.  Water.  To  determine  the  amount  of  water  in  a 
plant  substance  weigh  out  a  ten-  or  twenty-gram  sample  and  dry  it 
for  two  or  three  hours  in  an  oven  at  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water.  Reweigh  the  sample,  place  it  in  the  oven,  and  heat  again. 
Reweigh  and  continue  heating  and  weighing  until  the  weight  be- 
comes constant.  The  loss  in  weight  is  water.  Compute  and  record 
the  percentage  of  water  lost.  Compute  the  percentage  of  dry  matter 
in  the  fresh  sample. 

2.  Ash.   The  sample  after  being  dried  is  burned  to  a  white  ash. 
Weigh  and  compute  the  percentage  of  ash  on  the  basis  of  dry 
substance;  on  the  basis  of  fresh  sample.   Compute  by  difference 
the  percentage  of  organic  matter  in  the  dry  substance ;  compute 
the  percentage  in  the  fresh  substance.     Compare  results  with  those  given  in  Appendix. 

3.  Protein.  Place  some  white  of  egg  in  a  dish  or  test  tube  and  add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid. 
Note  the  color  which  appears.  Heat  the  mixture  slightly,  rinse  off  the  acid,  and  add  ammonia.  Note 
again  the  color.  The  colors  which  appear  indicate  the  presence  of  protein.  Place  a  little  nitric  acid  on  a 
piece  of  finger  nail.  A  yellow  color  indicates  protein.  Test  such  substances  as  wheat  flour,  meat,  and 
milk  for  protein. 

4.  Nitrogen-free  extract.  Nitrogen-free  extract  consists  in  part  of  sugars  and  starches.  Sugars 
may  be  detected  by  the  taste  in  those  substances  which  contain  a  large  amount.  To  test  for  grape 
sugar  place  a  raisin  or  crystals  of  grape  sugar  in  a  test  tube  or  dish  and  add  water.  Shake  the 
mixture  and  to  a  little  of  it  add  a  drop  of  Fehhng's  solution  and  heat.  Note  the  change  in  color.  A 
yellow  to  red  color  indicates  the  presence  of  grape  sugar. 

To  test  for  cane  sugar  or  glucose  proceed  as  follows :  Place  a  piece  of  cane  sugar  or  glucose  not 
larger  than  a  pin  head  in  a  test  tube.  Add  4  or  5  drops  of  water  and  2  drops  of  a  ten  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  a-Naphthol  in  chloroform.  Add  2  c.c.  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  in  such  manner  as  to 
allow  the  heavy  acid  to  form  a  separate  layer  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  Note  the  color  of  the  ring 
which  forms.    After  a  few  minutes  add  5  c.c.  of  water.   What  colored  precipitate  forms? 

To  test  for  starch  place  a  few  drops  of  iodine  solution  on  the  cut  surface  of  a  vegetable  such  as  the 
potato.  The  blue  color  indicates  the  presence  of  starch.  Test  corn  kernels,  wheat,  flour,  rice,  etc.,  for 
starch. 

[166] 


EXERCISE  84  {Continued) 

5.  Crude  fiber.  Remove  the  seed  coat  from  a  bean  or  kernel  of  com.  Examine  the  outer  layer  of  a 
mature  corn  stalk.  This  hard,  woody  material  is  principally  crude  fiber.  Cotton  and  flax  are  examples 
of  crude  fiber  that  may  be  readily  examined. 

6.  Fats.  Fats  are  extracted  with  ether.  Cover  a  little  cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  or  corn  meal 
with  ether ;  stir  about  a  minute  and  pour  off  the  ether.  Set  aside  untU  the  ether  evaporates,  as  indicated 
by  the  absence  of  the  odor  of  ether.  The  substance  remaining  is  fat.  (Gasoline  may  be  used  if  ether  is 
not  obtainable.)  Test  wheat  bran,  castor  beans,  peanuts,  cottonseed,  flaxseed,  and  sunflower  seed  for  fats. 

Questions.  Mention  two  plant  products  from  which  starch  is  obtained  for  commercial  purposes. 
Mention  two  plant  products  from  which  oil  is  obtained  for  commercial  use.  From  your  examination  of 
crude  fiber  would  you  consider  it  a  very  valuable  part  of  the  plant  ?  Is  it  easily  digested  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  p.  25.  Ginn  and  Company.  Henry  and  Morrison. 
Feeds  and  Feeding  Abridged,  pp.  11-16.  The  Henry  Morrison  Company.  Jordan,  W.  H.  The  Feeding  of 
Animals,  pp.  7-9.  The  Macmillan  Company. 


[167] 


EXERCISE  85 


HOW  THE  ANIMAL  DIGESTS   ITS   FOOD 


pharynx-- 


•--longue 

lower  muTidible' 
0/  beak 


»eeond  portion 
of  esophagus  \ 

proventrioilus,  or 
glatidular  stomach 


gizzard,  or, 
muscular  stomach 


small  intestines 
entrance  of 
urinary  duct 

rectum 


Statement.  Just  as  the  plant  is  unable  to  take  food  from  the  soil  until  it  is  dissolved,  so  the  animal 
is  unable  to  use  food  for  its  nourishment  until  it  has  been  digested.  Digestion  begins  with  masti- 
cation and  continues  up  to  the  time  the  undigested  part 
of  the  food  leaves  the  body.  The  mineral  matter,  crude 
protein,  fat,  sugar,  starch,  and  fiber,  each  undergoes  diges- 
tion in  the  alimentary  tract. 

Object.  To  learn  the  processes  of  digestion  and  where 
in  the  alimentary  tract  each  food  is  digested. 

Materials.  Colored  pencils  and  pictures  of  the  diges- 
tive tracts  of  animals  to  be  studied. 

Directions,  i .  Using  different  colored  pencils  or  ink  to 
represent  mineral  matter,  crude  protein,  fat,  sugar,  starch, 
and  fiber,  respectively,  trace  their  passage  through  the 
digestive  tract  to  the  place  where  each  is  largely  changed 
into  another  product.  Indicate  in  writing  the  manner  in 
which  each  change  is  brought  about.  Note  in  what  organ 
of  the  body  each  change  takes  place.  Explain  where  and 
how  the  digested  food  is  absorbed  into  the  circulatory 
system.  Determine  where  and  for  what  purpose  each 
kind  of  digested  food  is  used  by  the  animal. 

2.  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  digestive  tracts  of  the 
chicken,  the  horse,  and  the  ox  as  shown  in  the  diagrams 
and  described  in  reference  books.  Also  state  in  writing  the 
important  particulars  in  which  each  differs  from  the  other. 

Show  how  fowls  masticate  their  food,  and  how  in  detail  the  ox  masticates  food,    and  what  is 

meant  by  the  expression,  "chewing  its  cud."    To  what  class  of  animals  is  the  expression  applied? 

Indicate  the  difference  in  their  systems 

with  respect  to  their  ability  to  handle 

coarse  fodders. 

3.   Describe  the  digestive  processes         rectum 

which  go  on  in  the  mouth  and  name 

the   compounds  which  are   active  in 

bringing  about  the  changes  which  occur 

there.   Describe  the  changes  which  take 

place  in  the  simple  stomach,  and  name 

the    juices  which    are   active.     State 

what  changes  occur  in  the  small  in- 
testines.   Indicate  the  action   of   the 

pancreas  and   the  liver.    What  proc- 
esses take  place  in  the  large  intestines  ? 

State  where  and  how  each  part  of  the 

digested  material  is  assimilated  by  the 

body.   Explain  how  the  fats,  carbohydrates,  and  protein  are  digested.    Mention  the  part  which  bacteria 

play  in  the  digestive  process  and  in  which  class  of  animals  they  are  the  most  important. 

[168] 


-cloaca 


Fig.  138.   The  digestive  tract  of  a  chicken 
Diagram  from  Iowa  State  College 


roof  of  riMuOi 
longue  i 
pharynx-- 


— large  colon 
small  colon 

Fig.  139.  The  digestive  tract  of  a  horse 
From  Iowa  State  College 


imall 
intestines 


EXERCISE  85  (Continued) 

Questions.   In  what  respects  does  the  alimentary  canal  of  an  ox  differ  from  that  of  a  pig?  In 

what  respects  does  the  digestive  tract  of  a  chicken  differ  from  that  of  the  ox?  of  the  pig?    Which 

of   these    animals   is  most  capable  of 

handling  coarse  food,  and  why?    Why 

does  the  chicken  need  gravel  or  crushed 

stone?   Explain   the  effect  of  grinding 

grain  upon  the  ease  and  rapidity  with 

which   it   is   digested.    Is   a   foodstuff 

containing   much  crude  fiber  more  or 

less    readily    and    completely   digested 

than   one   containing   little   fiber,   and 

why  ?   How  many  stomachs  has  the  ox  ? 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  "ruminant" 

and    to   what   class   of    animals    is    it 

applied?     Consult   the    tables    in    the 

Appendix  and  state  what  proportion  of 

com  and  other  common  feeds  is  digested.  „  -n,  j-     »•     *     *   t 

°  Fig.  140.   The  digestive  tract  of  a  cow 

„   ,  „r  TT   T      T-  1-   1  Diagram  from  Iowa  State  College 

References.   Waters,  H.  J .    Essentials 

of  Agriculture,  pp.  320-329.  Ginn  and  Company.  Henry  and  Morrison.  Feeds  and  Feeding  Abridged, 
pp.  18-33.  The  Henry  Morrison  Company.  Jordan,  W.  H.  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  pp.  98-126.  The 
Macmillan  Company.  Harper,  M.  W.  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools,  pp.  58-63.  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany. 


roofofmoulh 
tongue     \ 
pharynx- 


ealivary 
omasum,  or     ducts 
manypUes 

reticulum,  or  Koneycomb 


dboniasum,  or 

rennet  (true  stomach) 


[169] 


EXERCISE  86 

COMPUTING  THE  NUTRITIVE  RATIO  OF  STOCK  FEEDS 

Statement.  The  successful  stockman  gives  his  animals  feeds  containing  protein  and  carbohy- 
drates in  the  proportions  in  which  they  require  these  materials  for  their  best  development,  just 
as  the  skilled  mechanic  mixes  sand  and  cement  in  the  proper  ratio  to  make  good  concrete.  The  ratio 
between  the  digestible  protein  and  digestible  carbohydrates  in  a  foodstuff  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  that  material. 

Object.  To  determine  the  nutritive  ratio  of  feeds  and  to  compare  different  feeds  as  to  their  value 
in  compoimding  rations. 

Materials.  Pencil  and  paper,  and  tables  giving  the  composition  of  feeding  stuffs.  (See  Appendix, 
Table  I.) 

Directions.  In  computing  the  nutritive  ratio  only  the  digestible  portion  is  usually  considered. 
Included  in  the  carbohydrates  are  the  starch,  sugar,  crude  fiber,  and  fat.  As  the  fat  contains  about  two 
and  one  fourth  times  as  much  energy  as  starch  or  sugar,  the  amount  of  digestible  fat  in  the  feeding 
stuff  is  multiplied  by  two  and  one  fourth  before  it  is  added  to  the  other  carbohydrates.  This  process 
is  termed  converting  fat  into  carbohydrate  or  starch  equivalent.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  per  cent  of  total  digestible  carbohydrates  by  the  per  cent  of  digestible  protein  contained 
in  the  foodstuff.  In  stating  the  nutritive  ratio  the  protein  is  expressed  as  i  and  the  carbohydrates  as 
the  quotient  obtained.  As  an  example,  corn  (according  to  Table  I,  Appendix)  contains  7.5  per  cent  of 
digestible  protein,  67.8  per  cent  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  aside  from  fat,  and  4.6  per  cent  of  fat. 
Multiplying  the  fat  by  2^  (4.6  X  2j)  and  adding  the  product  (10.4)  to  the  carbohydrates  (67.8),  we 
have  as  the  total  carbohydrates  78.2.  Dividing  this  amount  (78.2)  by  the  amount  of  protein  (7.5),  we 
have  as  the  quotient  10.4.  Thus  the  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  one  part  digestible  protein  to  10.4  parts 
digestible  carbohydrates,  written  i :  10.4.  This  means  that  for  every  pound  of  digestible  protein  in 
corn  there  are  10.4  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates.  Feeds  in  which  the  difference  between  the 
amount  of  protein  and  carbohydrates  is  small  are  said  to  have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio,  as  i :  3,  while 
those  feeds  in  which  the  difference  is  large,  as  in  the  case  of  corn,  are  said  to  have  a  wide  ratio. 

The  importance  of  such  a  calculation  is  based  on  the  fundamental  principle  that  no  other 
constituent  of  feeds  can  take  the  place  of  protein  in  forming  new  tissue  or  replacing  old,  or  in 
making  milk,  eggs,  wool,  feathers,  etc.  Therefore  we  must  begin  the  building  of  a  ration  with  a 
certain  minimum  of  protein.  It  is  true  that  there  are  three  sources  of  carbohydrates,  fat,  starch 
and  sugar,  and  crude  fiber.  For  the  purposes  of  calculating  the  nutritive  ratio  we  convert  these 
values  into  that  of  carbohydrates,  but  later  we  shall  learn  that  they  have  widely  different  values. 

Problems.  Compute  the  nutritive  ratio  of  each  of  the  following  feeds  and  classify  them  as  narrow, 
medium,  and  wide.  Cottonseed  meal,  linseed  meal,  wheat,  bran,  wheat  middlings,  oats,  kafir  grain,  alfalfa 
hay,  clover  hay,  cowpea  hay,  corn  silage,  wheat  straw,  and  corn  stover.     (See  Appendix,  Table  I.) 

Questions.  What  are  the  principal  uses  which  the  animal  makes  of  protein  ?  What  common  food- 
stuffs supply  protein  most  abimdantly?  What  are  the  principal  sources  of  protein  in  your  locality? 
What  are  the  principal  uses  to  which  animals  put  carbohydrates  ?  What  are  the  principal  sources  of 
carbohydrates  in  your  neighborhood?  What  are  some  of  the  foodstuffs  in  your  neighborhood  which 
have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio?  Name  six  feeds  possessing  a  wide  nutritive  ratio.  Name  some  of  the 
common  feeds  which  have  a  medium  nutritive  ratio. 

References.  Plumb,  C.  S.  Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  p.  272.  Webb  Publishing  Company. 
Henry  and  Morrison.  Feeds  and  Feeding  Abridged,  pp.  37-38.  The  Henry  Morrison  Company.  Jordan, 
W.  H.  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  p.  283.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Harper,  M.  W.  Animal  Husbandry  for 
Schools,  p.  359.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

{1701 


EXERCISE   87 


COMPUTING  A  BALANCED  RATION 

Statement.  The  nutritive  ratio  required  by  young  and  rapidly  growing  animals  is  narrower  than  that 
for  grown  animals.  A  dairy  cow  in  full  flow  of  milk  needs  a  ration  containing  more  protein  than  does 
a  steer  that  is  being  "  roughed  "  through  the  winter.  A  ration  with  a  nutritive  ratio  which  is  adjusted 
to  the  needs  of  the  animals  to  which  it  is  being  fed  is  said  to  be  a  balanced  ration.  One  which  does  not 
supply  the  nutrients  in  the  proper  proportion  is  said  to  be  an  unbalanced  ration.  The  needs  of  all 
classes  of  farm  animals  have  been  carefully  studied  and  what  constitutes  a  balanced  ration  for  each 
has  been  approximately  determined.  The  nutritive  ratio  required  by  most  of  such  classes  is  shown 
in  column  five  of  Table  II  of  the  Appendix. 

Object.   To  learn  how  to  compound  a  balanced  ration  for  different  classes  of  farm  animals. 
Materials.   Paper ;  pencil ;  Table  II,  Appendix. 

Directions.  Assume  that  weanling  pigs  are  fed  corn  meal  20  poimds  and  skim  milk  80  pounds. 
C  imputing  the  nutrients  in  this  ration  we  have : 


Amount  of  Feed 

Protein 
(in  Pounds) 

Carbohydrates 
(dj  Pounds) 

Nutritive  Ratio 
(in  Pounds) 

Corn,  20  pounds 

Skim  milk,  80  p)Ounds     .     .     . 
Total,  ICX5  pounds      .... 
Wolff-Lehmann  Standard    .     . 

2.88 
4.38 

15-64 

4-44 

20.08 

1 :  4-57 
1:4.5 

This  ration  is  properly  balanced.   In  a  like  manner  work  out  the  following  problems : 

1.  Pigs  weighing  100  poimds  are  being  fed  corn  meal  80  parts,  and  wheat  middlings  20  parts.  Are 
they  receiving  a  balanced  ration  ?  If  not,  what  change  would  you  make  in  the  proportion  of  com  to 
middlings  to  balance  the  ration  ? 

2.  A  cow  giving  milk  is  receiving  a  ration  consisting  of  corn  chop  6  pounds,  cottonseed  meal  2  pounds, 
wheat  bran  2  pounds,  corn  silage  30  pounds,  and  timothy  hay  10  pounds  daily.  Is  the  ration  balanced  ? 
What  changes  would  you  make  in  the  proportions  ?  What  would  be  the  effect  of  substituting  alfalfa 
for  timothy  ? 

3.  A  pen  of  laying  hens  weighing  between  5  and  8  pounds  each  are  being  fed  a  ration  of  3  pounds 
cracked  corn,  i  pound  wheat,  i  pound  corn  meal,  i  pound  oatmeal,  i  pound  bran,  and  ^  pound  meat- 
scrap.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration  ?  What  is  the  proper  ratio  for  hens  of  this  size  ?  (See 
Appendix,  Table  II.)    Change  the  proportions  so  as  to  give  the  proper  ratio. 

4.  A  caff  is  being  wintered  on  timothy  hay  and  corn  stover.  Is  the  ration  balanced  ?  Show  what  the 
effect  of  substituting  half  clover,  affalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  for  timothy  would  have  on  the  ration. 

5.  Ascertain  what  rations  are  most  commonly  used  in  the  neighborhood  in  feeding  work  horses ; 
weanling  colts ;  calves ;  dairy  cows ;  fattening  steers ;  wintering  cattle ;  pigs  weighing  50  pounds,  100 
pounds,  and  200  pounds,  respectively.  Compute  the  nutritive  ratio  of  those  rations  which  are  most 
important  to  the  neighborhood  and  ascertain  how  far  they  deviate  from  a  balanced  ration.  Suggest 
how  their  deficiencies  may  be  corrected,  using  home-grown  feeds  whenever  possible. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  328,  392-393.  Ginn  and  Company.  Henry 
and  Morrison.  Feeds  and  Feeding  Abridged,  pp.  106-116.  The  Henry  Morrison  Company.  Plumb,  C.  S. 
Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  pp.  274-288.  The  Webb  Publishing  Company.  Harper,  M.  W.  Animal 
Husbandry  for  Schools,  p.  65.   The  Macmillan  Company. 

[1721 


EXERCISE  87  (Continued) 
1.  FOR  PIGS  WEIGHING  ONE  HUNDRED  POUNDS 


K.DID  OP  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 

Digestible  Crude 
Protein. 

Carbohydrates 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Corn  meal 

80 

Wheat  middlings       .     .     . 

20 

Total 

Standard     

2.  FOR  A  COW  IN  MILK 


Kind  or  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 

Digestible  Crude 
Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Com  chop 

Cottonseed  meal  .... 

Wheat  bran 

, 

Corn  silage 

Timothy  hay 

Total 

Standard 

3.   FOR  LAYING  HENS 


Kind  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 

Digestible  Crude 
Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Cracked  com 

Wheat 

Oatmeal 

Bran       

Meat  scrap 

Total 

Standard 

4.  MAINTENANCE  RATION  FOR  CALF 


Kind  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 

Digestible  Crude 
Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Timothy  hay 

Corn  stover 

Total 

Standard     ...... 

173 


EXERCISE  88 
COMPUTING  A  STANDARD  RATION* 

Statement.  A  ration  which  supplies  nutrients  in  proper  amounts  as  well  as  in  proper  proportions  is 
called  a  standard  ration. 

Object.  To  learn  how  to  compound  a  standard  ration  for  different  classes  of  farm  animals  using, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  common  feeds  of  the  farm. 

Materials.   Paper;  pencil;  table  of  feeding  standards.     See  Table  II  of  Appendix. 

Directions.  Compute  a  standard  ration  for  pigs  weighing  from  50  to  75  pounds  each,  and  assume 
that  one  feed  most  convenient  to  use  is  corn.  Pigs  of  this  age  require  45  to  52  pounds  of  dry  matter, 
6.3  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  32.96  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  a  nutritive  ratio  of 
1:5.2  daily  per  icxxj  pounds  of  live  weight  of  animal.  The  table  of  feeding  standards  is  designed  to 
show  the  pounds  of  each  nutrient  required  for  1000  pounds  of  animal.  When  the  feeds  for  1000  pounds 
of  weight  are  determined,  the  amount  required  for  the  animal  or  animals  under  consideration  may  be 
readily  computed. 

Using  corn  alone  the  ration  would  contain  67.8  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  4.6  pounds 
of  fat  in  100  pounds.  Multiplying  the  fat  by  2.25  and  adding  it  to  the  carbohydrates  gives  78.2 
poimds  of  carbohydrates  in  100  poimds  of  corn.  Therefore,  to  furnish  32.96  pounds  of  carbohydrates 
would  require  42.15  pounds  of  corn.  This  amoimt  of  corn  contains  only  3.16  pounds  digestible  protein, 
which  is  too  small  an  amount.   The  nutritive  ration  of  corn,  i :  10.4,  is  entirely  too  wide. 

1.  Instead  of  feeding  corn  alone,  make  the  ration  of  com  20  pounds  and  wheat  middlings  20  poimds 
daily  per  1000  pounds  of  live  weight.  Compute  the  pounds  of  dry  matter,  protein,  and  carbohydrates 
contained  in  this  ration  and  compare  with  the  standard. 

2.  Assume  that  the  ration  consists  of  corn  27  pounds  and  skim  milk  87  pounds  per  1000  pounds, 
live  weight.  Calculate  the  pounds  of  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  and  digestible  carbohydrates 
supplied  and  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration.   Compare  this  with  the  standard. 

3.  In  a  similar  manner  compute  a  standard  ration  for  pigs  of  this  age,  using  corn,  wheat  middlings, 
and  meat-meal  or  tankage.   Place  all  figures  in  the  blank  on  the  following  page. 

4.  Compute  a  standard  ration  for  growing  yearling  steers,  using  corn  silage  and  wheat  straw 
as  the  basis,  and  purchasing  cottonseed  meal.  Compute  a  standard  ration  for  fattening  two-year- 
old  steers  with  corn,  sorghum  silage,  and  alfalfa  hay  as  the  basis,  and  the  privilege  of  purchasing 
cottonseed  cake  or  old  process  linseed  meal.  Make  up  a  ration  for  fattening  steers  with  corn  stover, 
oat  straw,  cowpea  hay,  and  cottonseed  meal  as  the  basis. 

Questions.  How  does  the  local  farm  practice  compare  with  the  feeding  standards  ?  Are  the  farmers 
using  too  much  or  too  little  protein  ?  How  may  the  farmers  of  the  community  secure  additional  protein 
without  purchasing  it?  Which  is  the  more  costly  to  buy  in  feedstuffs,  protein  or  carbohydrates? 
How  many  farmers  are  feeding  their  pigs  on  corn  alone  or  on  corn  and  pasture  grass  ?  Which  class  of 
animals  requires  the  greater  quantity  of  protein  or  the  narrower  rations,  growing  or  grown  animals, 
working  or  idle  horses,  milking  or  dry  cows,  laying  or  barren  hens  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  an  ample  supply 
of  protein  on  the  quantity  and  luster  of  the  hair  coat  of  animals  ?  Which  shed  or  molt  the  earlier,  those 
which  are  liberally  or  those  which  are  sparsely  supplied  with  protein  ? 

References.  Henry  and  Morrison.  Feeds  and  Feeding  Abridged,  pp.  423-433.  The  Henry  Morrison 
Company.  Plximb,  C.  S.  Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry,  pp.  281-287.  Webb  Publishing  Company. 
Jordan,  W.  H.  The  Feeding  of  Animals,  pp.  280-295.  The  Macmillan  Company. 

'  In  farm  practice  it  is  frequently  advisable  to  depart  somewhat  from  the  accepted  feeding  standard.  For  example,  when 
feeds  rich  in  protein  are  high  priced  and  those  rich  in  carbohydrates,  Uke  com,  are  cheap,  it  will  pay  to  feed  a  wider  ration  than 
the  standard  prescribes.  The  successful  feeder,  however,  conforms  as  nearly  to  these  standards  as  the  cost  of  his  feed  and  the 
value  of  the  products  will  allow. 

[174] 


EXERCISE  88  {Continued) 


Kind  of  Feed 

Amount  op  Feed 

Amount  of  Dry 
Matter 

DiGESTKLE  Crude 
Protein 

Carbohydrates 

NuTRTTiVE  Ratio 

Com 

Wheat  middlings   .     .     . 

Total 

Wolff-Lehman   Standard 

Kind  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Dry 
Matter 

Digestible  Crude 
Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Corn 

Skim  milk 

Total 

Wolff-Lehman   Standard 

Kind  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Dry 
Matter 

Digestible  Crude 
Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Com 

Wheat  middlings    .     .     . 

Meat  meal  or  tankage    . 

Total 

Wolff-Lehman    Standard 

[175] 


EXERCISE  89 


COMPUTING  A  STANDARD  RATION  FOR  PIGS 


Object.  To  ascertain  what  combinations  of  common 
feeds  will  fatten  young  and  growing  hogs  most  cheaply. 

Materials.  Paper;  pencil;  table  of  feeding  standards  in 
Appendix. 

Directions.  Assmne  that  pigs  weighing  150  pounds  each 
are  to  be  fed  until  they  weigh  200  pounds,  or  through  the 
second  feeding  period,  which  is  a  period  of  growth  as  well 
as  of  fattening.  The  feeding  standard  for  pigs  in  this 
period  requires  daily  for  each  1000  poimds  of  live  weight 
from  36  to  45  pounds  of  dry  matter,  which  should  contain 
6.4  pounds  of  protein,  30  pounds  of  carbohydrates,  and  1.6 
pounds  of  fats,  and  should  have  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i :  5.2. 

1.  Suppose  wheat  middlings  and  corn  are  combined  in 
the  proportion  of  32  per  cent  middlings  to  68  per  cent 
corn,  or  9  pounds  of  middlings  to  27  pounds  of  corn. 
What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  and  how  does  it  compare  with 
the  standard? 

2.  Let  us 
suppose  that 
tankage  is  added 
to  make  a  ration 
of  25  pounds  of 
corn,   8   pounds 

of  wheat  middlings,  and  2  pounds  of  tankage,  or  corn  62 
per  cent,  wheat  middlings  32  per  cent,  and  tankage  6  per 
cent.     Compute  nutrients,  and  compare  with  the  standard. 

Compute,  and  compare  with  the  standard,  rations  made 
up  of  the  following  feeds  offered  in  the  proportions  named, 
estimating  the  amount  of  each  which  should  be  fed  daily  : 
shelled  corn,  100  pounds;  sweet  potatoes,  100  pounds ;  pea- 
nut meal,  50  pounds.  Also  shelled  corn,  100  pounds ;  cas- 
sava, 100  pounds;  peanut  meal,  50  pounds. 

Questions.  What  rations  are  most  commonly  used  in 
your  community  for  brood  sows,  for  mothers  and  young 
pigs,  for  weanlings,  for  fattening  hogs?  What  are  the  most 
common  hog  pastures  in  your  neighborhood  ?  Which  is  the 
best  ?  With  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture,  is  as  much  protein  re- 
quired in  the  grain  as  when  the  hogs  are  confined  to  a  dry 
lot  ?  Is  as  much  required  when  hogs  are  running  on  bluegrass 
or  bermuda  grass  ?  What  are  the  most  common  commercial 
proteins  available  for  swine  feeding?   What  is  the  principal  source  of  carbohydrates  in  swine  feeding? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  402-406.  Ginn  and  Company.  Henry  and 
Morrison.  Feeds  and  Feeding  Abridged,  pp.  347-350.  The  Henry  Morrison  Company.  Day,  G.  E.  Pro- 
ductive Swine  Husbandry,  pp.  142-185.   J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 

[176] 


Fig. 141.  The  effect  on  the  growing  pig  of  feeding 
an  unbalanced  ration 

The  upper  picture  shows  how  the  pig  looked  at  the  be- 
ginning, weight  28  pounds.     The  lower  picture  shows  its 
appearance  at  the  end  —  after  having  been  fed  all  the 
corn  it  would  eat  for  six  months,  weight  31  pounds 


Fig.  142.   Effect  on  the  growing  pig  of  feeding  a 
balanced  ration 

The  upper  picture  shows  the  appearance  of  the  pig  at  the 
beginning  of  the  test,  weight  17  pounds.  The  lower 
picture  shows  how  it  looked  after  having  been  fed  for  six 
months  on  a  balanced  ration,  weight  200  pounds.  This 
pig  is  full  brother  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  141 


EXERCISE  89  (Continued) 
COMPUTING   STANDARD  RATIONS  FOR  HOGS 


Kind  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 
(dj  Pounds) 

Dry  Matter 
(in  Pounds) 

Digestible  Protein 
(in  Pounds) 

Digestible  Carbo- 

HTfDRATES 

(in  Pounds) 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Standard       .     . 

Kind  of  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 
(in  Pounds) 

Drv  Matter 
(in  Pounds) 

Digestible  Protein 
(in  Pounds) 

Digestible  Carbo- 
hydrates 
(in  Pounds) 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Standard       .     . 

Kind  or  Feed 

Amount  of  Feed 
(in  Pounds) 

Dry  Matter 
(in  Pounds) 

Digestible  Protein 
(in  Pounds) 

Digestible  Carbo- 
hydrates 
(in  Pounds) 

Nutritive  Ratio 

Standard       .     . 

[177] 


EXERCISE  90 

COMPUTING  STANDARD  RATIONS  FOR  DAIRY  COWS 

Object.  To  leam  the  requirements  of  cows  giving  milk  and  the  most  economical  sources  of  the 
nutrients  required. 

Materials,  i.  Assume  that  the  cow  is  producing  24  pounds  (three  gallons)  of  milk  containing  4 
per  cent  butter  fat  daily,  and  that  she  weighs  1000  poimdsj  assimie  that  corn  and  timothy  hay  are  the 
most  convenient  feeds  to  use. 

The  requirement  of  such  a  cow  according  to  the  feeding  standards  is  29  poimds  of  dry  matter,  2.5 
pounds  of  protein,  and  14. i  pounds  of  carbohydrates  daily.  Ten  pounds  of  corn  and  15  pounds  of 
hay  daily  would  supply  approximately  the  amount  of  carbohydrates  required.  Ascertain  whether  this 
ration  furnishes  the  required  amoimt  of  digestible  protein  and  dry  matter.  Ascertain  also  how  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration  compares  with  the  standard.  Substitute  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpea  hay  for 
timothy,  giving  10  pounds  of  grain  and  25  povmds  of  hay  a  day,  and  compute  the  amount  of  each  group 
of  nutrients  supplied  and  compare  them  with  the  standards.  Reduce  the  com  to  7  pounds  daily,  the 
clover  or  alfalfa  hay  to  20  pounds,  and  add  2  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal.  Compute,  and  compare  with 
the  standard  in  quantity  of  nutrients  and  nutritive  ratio. 

2.  Make  a  study  of  the  rations  most  commonly  fed  in  the  neighborhood  and  compare  them  with  the 
standard.  Suggest  improvements  in  the  amount  or  kind  of  grain  used ;  in  the  amount  and  kind  of 
roughage  used.  Ascertain  to  what  extent  the  legumes  are  used  as  the  principal  hays  and  to  what  extent 
silage  is  the  principal  source  of  non-legume  roughage. 

3.  Compute  the  nutrients  contained  in  the  rations  for  milk  cows  suggested  in  the  text  and  compare 
them  with  the  accepted  standards.  Suggest  other  rations  which  might  be  profitably  used  in  your 
locality. 

Questions.  Should  all  the  cows  in  a  herd  be  given  the  same  amoimt  of  feed  ?  How  may  the  proper 
amount  of  grain  for  a  cow  be  ascertained  ?  How  much  roughage  should  be  fed  to  cows  giving  milk  ?  How 
may  one  know  when  a  cow  is  being  underfed  ?  overfed  ?  At  what  season  of  the  year  is  milk  produced 
at  the  least  cost  for  feed,  and  why  ?  Ask  an  experienced  dairyman  of  the  neighborhood  whether  it  is 
practicable  "  to  bring  a  cow  back  to  her  milk  "  after  the  milk  flow  has  been  allowed  to  decline.  Record 
these  answers. 

References.  Henry  and  Morrison.  Feeds  and  Feeding  Abridged,  pp.  247-279.  The  Henry  Morrison  Com- 
pany. EcKLES,  C.  H.  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production,  pp.  260-287.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Waters, 
H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  364-367.   Giim  and  Company. 


[178] 


1 


EXERCISE  91 


COMPUTING  STANDARD  RATIONS  FOR  LAYING  HENS 

Statement.  The  problem  of  supplying  a  proper  ration  for  poultry  of  all  classes  is  one  of  the  most 
important  considerations  in  the  practical  handling  of  birds.  The  breed,  age,  housing,  season,  and  range 
must  all  be  taken  into  account  in  compounding  the  ration. 

Object.  To  learn  the  requirements  of  the  laying  hen  and  the  most  profitable  sources  of  the  nutrients 
required. 

Materials.   Paper,  pencil,  table  of  feeding  standards,  and  digestible  nutrients  for  chickens. 

Directions,  i.  Assume  that  the  hens  are  in  full  laying  and  weigh  3  to  5  pounds  each,  and  that  the 
feeds  available  are  corn,  wheat,  oats,  bran,  shorts,  and  meatscrap. 

2.  According  to  the  feeding  standard  the  requirements  of  such  hens  per  hundred  pounds  live  weight, 
are  5.5  pounds  of  digestible  dry  matter,  i  pound  of  protein,  4.53  pounds  of  carbohydrates  daily.  ■  If  we 

fed  2  pounds  corn,  2  pounds  wheat, 
I  pound  oats,  2  pounds  bran,  i 
pound  shorts,  and  .5  pound  meat- 
scrap,  we  should  supply  approxi- 
mately the  amount  of  carbohydrates 
required.  Determine  whether  this 
arnount  of  feed  furnishes  the  re- 
quired amount  of  digestible  protein 
and  dry  matter.  Ascertain  also  how 
the  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration 
compares  with  the  standard.  Sub- 
stitute I  pound  of  kafir  and  i  pound 
of  com  meal  for  the  wheat,  compute 
the  amount  of  each  group  of  nutri- 
ents supplied,  and  compare  with 
the  standards.  Drop  the  oats  from 
the  ration  and  add  i  pound  of  corn  meal  and  substitute  oil  meal  for  the  meatscrap.  Compute 
nutrients  supplied  and  compare  with  the  standard  in  quantity  of  nutrients  and  in  nutritive  ratio. 

3.  Make  a  study  of  the  rations  most  commonly  fed  in  the  neighborhood  and  compare  them  with  the 
standard.  Suggest  improvements  in  the  amount  or  kind  of  grain  used ;  in  the  amount  and  kind  of 
high  protein  feed  used.   Ascertain  to  what  extent  carbohydrates  and  fattening  feeds  are  used. 

4.  Compute  the  nutrients  contained  in  the  rations  suggested  in  the  text  and  compare  with  the 
standard.    Suggest  rations  which  you  could  profitably  use  in  your  locaUty. 

Questions.  What  should  the  relative  proportion  of  grain  and  mash  be  ?  Why  do  we  feed  the  flock 
instead  of  the  individual  ?  Why  is  it  difficult  to  feed  a  flock  of  mongrels,  or  a  mixture  of  breeds  that  vary 
in  size  and  temperament,  with  good  results  ?  At  which  season  of  the  year  are  eggs  produced  at  least 
expense?  Why  isn't  it  profitable  to  Umit  the  amount  of  feed  below  normal  at  times  when  feed  is  scarce 
and  high  in  price?  What  is  a  scratch  feed  and  of  what  may  it  be  composed?  What  is  a  dry  mash 
and  of  what  may  it  be  composed?  At  what  time  of  day  is  a  scratch  feed  given  and  how  is  it  fed? 
At  what  time  of  day  is  the  dry  mash  given  and  how  is  it  fed?  Of  what  advantage  is  green  feed  in 
winter  and  how  may  it  be  obtained  ? 


Fig.  143.  Influence  of  a  balanced  ration  on  egg  production 

In  the  basket  at  the  left  are  i  lo  eggs,  the  average  first-year  production  of  ungraded  hens 

fed  on  a  balanced  ration.     In  the  basket  at  the  right  are  65  eggs,  the  average  first-year 

production  of  ungraded  hens  receiving  an  unbalanced  ration.     (Courtesy  of  the  Kansas 

State  Agricultural  College) 


References.  LiPPrNCOTT,  W.  A.    Poultry  Production,  pp. 
Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  427-428.   Ginn  and  Company. 

[180] 


359-376.    Lea  &  Febiger.    Waters,  H.  J. 


PART  VII.     FARM    EQUIPMENT  AND   MACHINERY 

EXERCISE  92 
THE  GAS  ENGINE  AND  AUTOMOBILE 


Inlet 

valve' 


Spark 
plug 


Exhaust, 
valve 


Fig.  144.  Suction  stroke 


Suction  of  the  mixture  of  air  and  gas  through  inlet  valve  takes  place  during  the  com- 
plete outward  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  exhaust  valve  being  closed 


Inlet 
vcdve 


WMMMWW/M/^MMM^^MM 


WWWMMWm^^ 


Statement.  There  is  no  machine  that  has  been  so  widely  and  rapidly  introduced  on   the 
farm  as  the  gas  engine.    Probably  no  other  machine  can  be  put  to  so  many  uses  or  can  save  so 

much  himian  energy. 

Object.  To  study  the  important 
parts  of  a  four-stroke-cycle  gasoline 
engine,  its  operation,  and  the  essen- 
tial parts  of  an  automobile. 

Materials.  Gasoline  engine  and  an 
automobile  which  may  be  examined. 

Directions,  i.  Examine  a  gas 
engine  and  learn  the  function  and 
location  of  the  following  parts :  fuel 
tank,  fuel-regulating  valve,  carbu- 
retor, inlet  valve,  exhaust  valve,  igni- 
tion system,  engine  cylinder,  piston, 
connecting  rod,  crank,  crank  shaft, 
flywheel,  valve  gear  shaft,  two-to- 
one  gears,  governor,  cylinder  jacket, 
cooling  system,  lubricators. 

Explain  in  writing  the  action  of 
the  four-stroke-cyrle  gasoline  engine, 
indicating  the  function  of  each  of  the 
above  parts. 

2.  Before  attempting  to  start  the 
engine  examine  the  fuel  supply,  try 
out  the  ignition  system,  see  that  the 
lubricators  are  working  properly, 
retard  the  spark  to  the  starting  posi- 
tion, open  the  fuel-regulating  valve, 
and  crank  the  engine,  always  pulling 
upon  the  crank.  As  soon  as  the  en- 
gine picks  up  adjust  the  fuel  valve 
for  best  fuel  economy  and  advance 
the  spark  to  the  running  position. 
Stop  and  start  the  engine  until  you 
are  familiar  with  the  operation.  Ex- 
plain in  writing  causes  for  a  gasoline 


Fig.  145.  Compression  stroke 

On  the  return  stroke  of  the  piston  both  valves  remain  closed  and  the  mixture  of  air  and 
gas  is  compressed  between  the  piston  and  the  closed  end  of  the  cylinder 


Inlet 
valve  ' 


Spark 
plug 


Exhaust^ 
volte 


\WWMWMJ^WM/^MM^/;77777Z 


AWmmmmmmm/mm/z/^^w/^, 


Fig. 


146.  Ignition  and  explosion 

Just  before  the  compression  stroke  is  completed  the  compressed  mixtiu-e  is  ignited  by 
a  spark  and  rapid  combustion  or  explosion  takes  place 


The  increased  pressure  within  the  cylinder  due  to  rapid  combustion  of  the  mixture 

drives  the  piston  on  its  second  forward  stroke.    This  is  the  only  stroke  in  the  cycle  in 

which  power  is  generated.    Both  valves  remain  closed  during  this  stroke 


engine's  failing  to  start.   Give  directions  in  writing  for  operating  gasoline  engines. 

3.   Examine  an  automobile  and  learn  the  location  and  function  of  the  following  parts :   motor, 
clutch,  transmission  gearing,  differential,  universal  joint,  steering  system,  control  system,  service 

[182] 


Give  directions  in  writ- 
farm  tractors  are  used 


IrUet 
vaht 


Spark 
plug 


Exhautt  / 
veUvt 


^m/AVM/////& 


EXERCISE  92  (Continued)    ' 

brake,  engineering  brake,  fuel  system,  ignition  system,  carburetor,  and  starter, 
ing  for  starting,  stopping,  oiling,  cleaning,  and  handling  an  automobile.    If 
in  the  neighborhood  either  bring  one 
to  the  school  for  detailed  study  or 
take  the  class  to  the  store  or  farm 
where  a  tractor  is  and  give  the  stu- 
dents the  opportunity  to  go  over  the 
machine  in  detail  and  at  least  to 
witness  it  in  operation.     Get  cata- 
logues  of  the  principal  types  and 
standard  makes  of  tractors  and  ex- 
plain the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each.   Assign  the  class  the  problem  of  listing  all  the 
ways  in  which  a  tractor  may  be  profitably  used  on  the  farm  the  year  round. 

References.  Potter,  A.  A.  Farm  Motors,  Chaps.  V  and  VI  (Second  Edition).  McGraw-Hill  Book 
Company,  through  whose  courtesy  the  cuts  used  in  this  exercise  were  obtained.  Haeshfield  and  Ulbeight. 
Gas  Engines  for  the  Farm,  pp.  6-28.   John  Wiley  &  Sons. 


Fig.  148.  Exhaust  or  scavenger  stroke 


During  the  fourth  stroke  the  exhaust  valve  remains  open  and  the  burned  gases  are 
driven  from  the  cylinder  into  the  air  by  the  return  of  the  piston 


[183] 


EXERCISE  93 


THE  ADJUSTMENT  AND  USE  OF  FARM  MACHINERY 

Statement.  With  large  machinery  the  farmer  has  been  able  to  use  the  strength  of  animals  such  as 
the  horse  and  the  ox,  and  also  the  power  of  wind,  water,  steam,  gas,  and  electricity.  This  has  multiplied 
his  efficiency  many  times.  With  hand  tools  a  man  can  cultivate  scarcely  more  than  two  acres  of 
land.  With  modern  labor-saving  machinery,  he  can  cultivate  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  or  more. 
Machine  agriculture  develops  a  much  more  intelligent  farmer  than  hand  agriculture.  He  must  under- 
stand the  construction  and  uses  of 
the  machines  he  operates  and  must 
know  how  to  keep  them  properly 
adjusted  and  repaired. 

Object.  To  learn  the  structure, 
adjustment,  use,  and  management 
of  farm  machinery  in  common  use. 

Materials.  Catalogues  of  the 
leading  farm  machinery  manufac- 
turers; posters;  charts  and  photo- 
graphs; machines  in  stock  at  the 
local  dealers  or  owned  by  neighbor- 
ing farmers. 

Directions,  i.  Arrange  with  one 
or  more  local  implement  dealers  to 
let  the  students  help  in  the  work 
of  setting  up  and  adjusting  for  use 
their  binders,  mowers,  gang  plows, 
disks,  cultivators,  corn  and  cotton 
planters,  and  wheat  drills.    Have 


Fig.  149.   Adjusting  the  drop  of  the  com  planter 
(Courtesy  of  the  International  Harvester  Comi)any) 


them  study  the  methods  of  adjusting  each  machine  for  effective  work  with  the  least  friction  or 
wear.  Study  the  construction  and  regulation  of  the  knotter  in  the  binder,  the  dropping  parts  of 
the  planters,  and  the  feed  of  the  drill.  If  feasible,  arrange  through  a  local  dealer  for  the  traveling 
representatives  of  some  of  the  more  important  implements  to  demonstrate  their  proper  care  and  use. 

2.  Test  a  com  planter  for  regularity  of  drop  with  graded  and  ungraded  seed  corn. 

3.  Learn  how  to  thread  a  binder  and  test  the  adjustment  by  running  some  bundles  of  straw  through 
the  machine. 

4.  Look  over  the  repair  parts  of  a  binder,  planter,  and  seeder  and  make  a  list  of  those  which  are 
most  frequently  needed  and  what  they  cost. 

5.  With  the  aid  of  the  dealer  have  each  member  of  the  class  make  a  list  of  the  machines  and  tools 
required  for  a  typical  farm  of  the  locality,  the  retail  price  of  each,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  complete 
equipment. 

Questions.  What  are  the  principal  sources  of  power  on  the  farms  of  the  community  ?  Name  the 
half  dozen  principal  labor-saving  machines  used  on  the  farms  of  the  neighborhood.  Write  a  brief 
history  of  the  invention  and  development  of  each.  How  did  the  farmer  perform  the  operations  which 
these  machines  perform  before  they  were  invented?  Where  does  the  farmer  obtain  repairs  for  his 
implements  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  449-455.  Ginn  and  Company.  Wikt,  F.  A. 
Farm  Machinery.  John  Wiley  and  Sons.    Ramsower.   Equipments  for  the  Farm.    Ginn  and  Company. 

[184] 


EXERCISE  94 


THE  CARE  OF  FARM  MACHINERY 

Statement.  After  land,  buildings,  and  live  stock,  the  largest  investment  of  the  American  farmer  is  in 
machinery.  Unless  the  complex  and  costly  machines  are  properly  used  and  cared  for,  great  loss 

results.  The  average  life  of  a  wheat  binder, 
perhaps,  does  not  exceed  six  years.  There  are 
many  cases  in  which  a  binder  has  rendered 
regular  service  for  twenty -five  or  thirty  years. 
A  mower  is  usually  rusty,  worn,  and  discarded 
at  the  end  of  six  or  seven  years.  Many  such 
machines  have  been  made  to  last  more  than 
twenty  years. 

Object.  To  learn  the  proper  care  of  farm 
machinery  and  to  study  conditions  under  which 
they  will  give  the  greatest  service. 

Materials.  Notebook ;  pencil ;  access  to  the 
implements  of  several  representative  farms. 

Directions,  i.  Take  the  class  to  two  or  three 
representative  farms  and  have  them  make  a 
study  of  the  use  and  care  of  the  farm  machinery 

on  each.   Have  them  make  a  list  of  the  machines  and  tools  and  record  the  uses  to  which  each  is 

put,  the  average  number  of  days  each  year  each  machine  is  used,  the  number  of  crops  on  which 

it  is  used  yearly,  and  its  average  period  of  service. 

If  the  machines  and  tools  are  housed  when  not 

in  use,  estimate  the  cost  of  the  shed  required. 

Estimate   the   annual   cost  of   providing   such 

shelter.   If  no  shelter  is  provided,  make  the  plan 

of  a  suitable  shed   and  estimate   the  cost  of 

erecting  it. 

2.  Assume  that  a  farmer  grows  30  acres  of 

wheat  a  year  and  owns  a  binder  for  his  exclu- 
sive use,  how  many  days  a  year  will  the  binder 

be  used?  Assume  that  the  binder  lasts  six  years, 

how  many  days  of  service  will  it  give?    At  the 

local  price  of  a  binder,  allowing  interest  at  6  per 

cent,  estimating  the  cost  of  repairs  at  $5.00  a  year,  and  assuming  that  the  machine  lasts  six  years,  what 

is  the  annual  cost  to  the  farmer  of  his  binder  ?  What  has  been  the  binder  cost  for  each  acre  of  wheat 


Fig.  150.   A  long-lived  binder 

This  binder  has  harvested  an  average  of  nearly  a  hundred  acres  of 

grain  a  year   for  28  years  in   Michigan   and   is   still   in  use.     The 

canvas  has  been  removed  and  the  maciiine  kept  under  cover  when 

not  in  use 


Fig.  151.   Such  neglect  of  machinery  as  is  shown  in  this  picture 
is  common  on  the  American  farm 


1^. 

■iBlaekimith  j 
Shop 


•tfjvxv»r**j-fxiva»%  %iM 


]l^<ir1e  Benc\ 


Open  I 
Driveway  \ 
l2'-ffkZ0Ky    j 


-xx.%«6_ 


Machine  Shed 
2ffx27'6" 


FlG.  152.   Floor  plan  and  elevation  of  a  cheap  and  convenient  machine  shed  and  workshop 

(Courtesy  of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College) 

[  .186  ] 


EXERCISE  94  (Continued) 

harvested  ?  Assuming  that  the  binder  lasts  twenty  years  and  the  other  charges  are  the  same  as  given 
above,  what  has  been  the  annual  cost  of  a  binder  ?  What  the  acre  cost  ? 

3.  Ascertain  if  there  is  any  feasible  plan  of  cooperation'  among  the  farmers  of  the  locality  in  the 
use  of  expensive  machinery  so  that  its  yearly  use  may  be  increased. 

4.  Ascertain  if  the  life  of  the  machinery  might  be  substantially  increased,  and  suggest  definite  ways 
in  which  it  may  be  accompUshed. 

Questions.  How  should  binders,  mowers,  silage  cutters,  corn  planters,  and  plows  respectively  be 
cared  for  so  as  to  give  the  maximum  length  of  service  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentials  of  Agriculture,  pp.  449-455.  Ginn  and  Company.  Potter,  A.  A. 
Farm  Motors.  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company.  Warren,  G.  F.  Farm  Management,  pp.  355-364.  The  Mac- 
millan  Company. 


[ 


[187] 


EXERCISE  95 

MAKING  A  FARM  INVENTORY 

Statement.  A  farm  inventory  is  a  detailed  list  of  farm  property  and  debts  with  values  assigned. 
Its  purpose  is  to  determine  the  actual  worth  of  the  farm  business  and  what  progress  has  been  made  in 
accumulating  property.  The  values  should  be  conservative  and  are  usually  about  what  the  property 
would  bring  at  a  forced  sale.  The  resources  consist  of  all  property  belonging  to  the  farmer.  The 
liabilities  are  his  debts.  The  difference  between  his  resources  and  liabilities  is  the  net  worth  of  the  farm, 
or  what  he  would  have  if  all  of  his  property  were  sold  at  the  values  given  and  his  debts  paid. 

Object.  To  ascertain  the  net  worth  of  the  farm  business  and  to  determine  the  gain  or  loss  from  year 
to  year. 

Materials.  Access  to  a  farm,  from  which  a  statement  of  all  resources  and  liabilities  may  be  obtained. 

Directions.  On  the  home  farm  or  on  a  farm  in  the  neighborhood,  with  the  owner's  consent,  take  an 
inventory  of  the  property  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  winter  is  the  best  time  in 
which  to  make  an  inventory,  as  the  work  is  not  so  urgent  at  that  time  and  the  crops  are  harvested  so 
that  their  quantity  can  be  more  accurately  determined. 

The  resources  are  classified  as  :  real  estate,  which  consists  of  the  farm  with  all  buildings,  fences,  and 
other  improvements ;  live  stock,  including  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  poultry,  and  any  other  live  stock ;  ma- 
chinery and  tools,  including  wagons,  harness,  conveyances,  all  farm  machinery,  and  all  small  tools ; 
feeds  and  supplies,  including  all  hay,  feeds,  and  grains  on  hand,  and  all  supplies  such  as  posts,  lumber, 
cement,  and  twine  ;  growing  crops,  or  all  crops  planted  and  not  yet  harvested ;  accounts  receivable,  or 
all  debts  of  others  to  the  farmer ;   and  cash  on  hand. 

The  liabiUties  should  include  all  the  farmer  owes  to  others. 

Note  that  an  inventory  shows  only  the  gain  or  loss  for  the  year,  with  no  consideration  of  the  labor 
or  capital  involved.  It  does  not  show  which  crops  made  profit  and  which  ones  were  produced  at  a  loss, 
nor  the  reason  for  the  results  obtained.  To  obtain  these  facts  a  detailed,  day-to-day  accounting  of  the 
business  is  required.  If  the  time  permits,  a  detailed  account  should  be  kept  for  the  year  on  the  home 
farm  and  a  summary  compiled  from  this  account. 

Questions.  Explain  the  meaning  of  an  inventory.  How  often  should  an  inventory  be  made?  In 
addition  to  the  inventory  what  accounts  should  be  kept  on  the  farm  ?  The  inventory  shows  how  much 
the  farmer  has  made.  What  shows  how  he  made  it  ? 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  pp.  442-447.  Ginn  and  Company.  Wakren,  G.  F. 
Farm  Management,  pp.  428-494.  The  Macmillan  Company.  Kyle  and  Ellis.  Fundamentals  of  Farming 
and  Farm  Life,  pp.  432-436.   Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


tl88) 


EXERCISE  96  (Continued) 

INVENTORY  SUMMARY 


Inventorv  of  Farm  Prooertv  of 

1 

RESO0SCES 

Date (Beg.  of  Year) 

Date (End  of  Year) 

No. 

Total  Value 

No. 

Total  Value 

• 

Total  rptt^UTri"i                                                             $                                                                      $                          . 

LlABIUTFES 

Total  liabilities 
Net  worth 

f 

$ 

Gain  or  loss  for  the  year 

f 

1 

.1 

(If  the  nel  worth  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  b  greater  than  at  the  end  of  the  year,  then  the  difference  is  a  loss.   In 
such  a  case  use  red  ink  to  record  loss  for  the  year.) 

[189] 


EXERCISE  96 

THE  COMMUNITY  BUSINESS 


Object.  To  determine  where  the  people  of  the  community  get  their  Uving.  To  ascertain  if  the  people 
of  the  community  are  as  nearly  self-sustaining  as  they  should  be  or  if  they  are  buying  things  away  from 
home  which  they  might  more  profitably  produce. 

Directions.  Make  a  survey  of  the  local  community  to  ascertain : 

1.  What  proportion  of  the  food,  such  as  meat,  bread,  vegetables,  and  fruits  consumed  in  the  com- 
munity is  produced  locally  ? 

2.  Examine  the  stock  of  one  or  two  groceries  in  town  and  interview  the  merchants,  to  ascertain 
what  proportion  of  their  stock  and  their  yearly  sales  was  produced  in  the  locality  and  what  part  was 

shipped  in.  Ascertain  where  the 
canned  goods,  butter,  cheese,  fruit, 
and  meats  were  produced. 

3.  How  can  the  local  farmers 
produce  profitably  a  larger  part  of 
the  products  they  consume  and 
more  of  what  the  people  in  the 
town  use  ? 

4.  How  could  the  farmers  cure 
their  own  hams,  bacon,  and  dried 
beef  and  supply  their  own  fresh 
meat  through  a  local  cooperative 
beef  club  ?  Ascertain  the  formulae 
for  curing  meats  on  the  farm  and 
suggest  plans  for  a  beef  club. 

5.  Suggest  plans  whereby  the 
people  of  the  town  and  country  can 
work  together  and  keep  a  larger 
share  of  the  busmess  of  the  com- 
munity at  home. 

6.  If  there  are  local  manufac- 
tories in  the  town,  ascertain  where 
the  products  are  marketed,  and  if 
the  local  demand  for  such  goods  is 

fully  supplied  or  whether  similar  products  are  shipped  into  the  community  from  distant  cities  while 
a  portion  of  the  product  of  the  local  factory  is  shipped  to  distant  markets.  Make  an  estimate  of  the 
saving  that  would  result  if  the  products  of  the  factories  were  marketed  at  home. 

7.  Consult  the  freight  agents  of  the  railway  and  the  local  merchants  to  ascertain  if  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  eggs,  and  poultry  are  shipped  out  of  town  to  market  and  if  similar  products  are  shipped  into 
town  to  be  consumed.  Is  this  an  economical  or  a  wasteful  way  of  doing  business?  Would  not  the 
farmer  receive  a  higher  price  for  his  products  and  the  consumer  secure  his  food  at  a  lower  price  if  the 
two  classes  worked  in  close  cooperation  through  the  local  retail  dealer? 

8.  Make  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  hands  a  beefsteak  passes  through  from  the  time  it  leaves  the 
shipping  station  of  the  cattle  producer  until  it  reaches  the  table  of  the  consumer. 

9.  Ascertain  if  the  farmers  of  your  locality  so  grade  and  pack  their  butter,  eggs,  fruit,  vegetables, 
poultry,  and  meat,  that  it  is  imiform  in  quaUty,  standard  in  grade,  and  attractive  to  the  purchaser,  or 
is  it  necessary  for  the  merchant  to  rework,  regrade,  or  repack  these  products  before  they  are  sold  ? 

[190] 


Fig.  153.   The  travels  of  a  beef  steer 

One  reason  why  meat  is  so  high  in  price  is  that  the  live  animal  travels  so  much  on  the  train 
and  visits  the  city  so  often.  The  steer  whose  picture  is  shown  above  was  bom  in  Texas 
and  was  sent  to  Fort  Worth  to  market  as  a  calf ;  was  wintered  in  Kansas,  and  sent  to 
Kansas  City  to  market  as  a  yearling.  Grazed  in  Missouri  during  the  summer,  again  sent 
to  Kansas  City,  then  to  Indiana  to  be  fattened  and  to  Chicago  to  be  slaughtered.  The  beef 
was  shipped  in  a  refrigerator  car  to  Louisiana  to  be  consumed 


EXERCISE  96   (Continued) 

10.  How  could  the  farmers  of  the  locality  improve  upon  their  present  methods  of  marketing  their 
products  ? 

11.  How  could  the  consumers  improve  upon  their  present  ways  of  buying,  so  as  to  keep  the  money 
at  home  ? 

12.  Who  would  profit  most  by  a  closer  cooperation  between  farmers  and  the  townspeople? 

13.  Write  a  theme  on  the  wastes  of  the  present  system  of  doing  business  in  your  community 
and  how  it  may  be  improved.  State  what  you  think  are  the  obligations  of  the  townspeople  and 
the  country  people  in  this  matter. 

References.  Waters,  H.  J.  Essentialsof  Agriculture,  pp.  436-442.  Ginn  and  Company.  Coulter,  J.  L. 
Cooperation  among  Farmers.  Sturgis  and  Walton  Company.  Hunt,  T.  F.  How  to  Choose  a  Farm,  pp.  62-66. 
The  Macmillan  Company. 


[i9i; 


OUTLINE   OF    TYPICAL    HOME   PROJECTS 


\   .. 


I.   PRODUCTION    PROJECTS 

PROJECT    1 
GROWING  CORN   FOR  PROFIT 

Materials.   Selected  seed ;  an  acre  or  more  of  land ;  the  use  of  the  necessary  tools ;  machinery. 

Directions.  Consult  all  the  literature  available  on  corn  production.  Confer  with  the  best  corn 
growers  of  the  community  regarding  the  variety  to  use,  sources  of  seed,  methods  of  manuring  and 
preparing  the  land,  time  and  method  of  planting  and  cultivating  the  crop.  Make  and  keep  a  record 
of  everything  you  do ;  keep  an  accurate  account  of  the  time  required,  and  the  cost  of  each  opera- 
tion. Use  only  such  methods  as  are  practicable  in  commercial  corn  growing,  but  leave  nothing  undone 
that  is  practicable  that  will  increase  the  yield.  Enter  a  full  statement  of  your  operations  in  the 
blanks  which  follow. 

SOIL  RECORD 

Note.  A  record  of  the  soil  will  furnish  a  basis  for  determining  what  sort  of  fertilizer,  if  any,  to  use,  as  well  as  the 
nature  of  the  cultivation  that  will  prove  the  most  desirable.  The  references  will  give  specific  information  and  should 
be  studied.   Others  may  be  obtained  that  will  prove  valuable. 


Bottom 

OR 

Upland 

Acres 

IN 

Field 

Crops 

GROWN   ON 

Soil  Last 
Year 

Crops 

GROWN  on 

Soil  Year 

BEFORE  Last 

Number  of 
Years  Field 
has  been  in 
Cultivation 

When  Legume 

Crop  was 

last  grown 

ON  Field 

Fertilizers 

Year  before 
last  and 
amount 

Used  last 
year  and 
amount 

Used  this 
year  and 
amount 

SEED  RECORD 


Varietv 

OF 

Seed 

Where 
Obtained 

How  Seed 

WAS   TESTED 

FOR  Germina- 
tion 

Result  of 

Germination 

Test 

Date  of 
Planting 

Date  of 
Replanting 

IF  ANY 

Final  Stand 

Good 
(9S  per  cent) 

Medium 
(go  per  cent) 

Poor 
(8s  per  cent) 

[194: 


PROJECT  1   {Continued) 
CARE  AND   HARVESTING  RECORD 


What  is  the  exact  size  of  the  plot  ? 


Explain  what  was  done  in  the  way  of  preparing  the  ground  for  the  com  crop. 


When  and  how  did  you  give  your  ground  its  first  cultivation  after  seed  was  planted  ? 


How  many  times  did  you  oiltivate  the  ground  after  planting? 


Just  what  kinds  of  tools  did  you  use  in  cultivating  your  plot  ? 


When  and  how  was  the  crop  laid  by? 


Give  date  and  method  of  harvesting  the  crop. 


Explain  how  the  grain  was  weighed  or  measured  to  determine  the  yield. 


COST,   YIELD,   AND   PROFIT   FOR  THE  YEAR 

Note.  In  making  up  cost  of  your  plot,  figure  rent  at  5  per  cent  on  the  value  of  your  plot  as  farm  land ;  your  time 
at  10  cents  per  hour  (your  father's  time  or  hired  help  at  20  cents  per  hour) ;  each  horse  at  i©  cents  per  hour ;  barnyard 
manure  at  50  cents  per  load  (approximately  one  ton)  whether  applied  this  year  or  last ;  commercial  fertilizers,  at  actual 
cost  to  you. 


Fill  Out  the  Following  Items  Carefully 

Total  Number 
OF  Hours 

Total  Cost 

a.  Disking,  manuring,  or  other  work  before  planting,  self  and  two  horses  30 
cents  per  hour,  10  cents  per  hour  for  each  additional  horse 

h.  Planting  the  plot  (self  and  team),  30  cents  per  hour 

c.   Hoeing,  weeding,  or  thinning  (self),  10  cents  per  hour 

d    Cultivating  (self  and  team),  30  cents  per  hour 

e.  Harvesting  crop  (self  and  team),  30  cents  per  hour 

/.   Estimated  rent  (5  per  cent  of  value  of  the  plot)       

g.  Cost  of  barnyard  manure  at  50  cents  per  load 

h.  Cost  of  seed  (if  you  did  not  purchase  it,  figure  its  market  value  at  the  price 
of  ffood  seed^                                       .     .          

i.   Total 

j    Total  yield,  bushels     .          

k    Market  value  December  i              .     .          

/.   Net  profit  from  the  plot 

195 


PROJECT  2 
GROWING  A  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  FOR  PROFIT  ^ 

Material.   A  suitable  plot  of  land ;  seeds ;  tools ;  fertilizers ;  hotbed ;  cold  frame. 

Directions,  i.  Locate  the  site  of  your  garden,  but  before  determining  its  size  or  the  vegetables 
you  will  grow,  read  the  required  references,  make  such  investigations  as  you  can,  and  write  answers  to 
the  following  questions.   Submit  your  answers  to  your  parents  and  teacher  for  criticism  and  approval. 

a.  Is  this  community  noted  for  good  gardens? 

b.  Enumerate  in  order  of  importance  the  six  most  valuable  garden  vegetables. 

c.  Can  you  sell  all  your  garden  products  in  the  local  market  ? 

d.  Will  you  sell  to  stores  or  direct  to  consumers? 

e.  What  kind  of  soil  is  best  for  a  vegetable  garden  ? 

2.  Determine  the  size  of  your  garden  and  the  amount  of  space  to  be  given  to  each  kind  of 
vegetable.   Determine  just  what  vegetables  you  will  grow,  giving  varieties  of  each.* 

3.  Make  a  drawing  of  your  garden  according  to  scale,  showing  the  exact  location  and  area  of  each 
proposed  crop. 

4.  Study  the  life  history  of  each  vegetable  you  will  attempt  to  grow. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  tools  you  will  need  and  make  arrangements  to  get  them  as  needed. 

6.  Purchase  the  necessary  seeds. 

7.  Prepare  your  garden  for  planting  and  start  your  hotbed  and  cold  frame. 

8.  In  a  book  provided  for  the  purpose  keep  a  daily  account  of  all  receipts  and  expenditures. 

9.  On  blank  forms  similar  to  those  below  keep  a  full  and  exact  account  of  the  entire  project. 

SOIL  RECORD 


Bottom  or 
Upland 

Area  or  • 
Plot 

Crops  grown  on 
Soil  Last  Year 

Crops  grown  on  Soil 
Year  before  Last 

Number  of  Years  Field 
has  been  in  cultivation 

When  Legume  Crop  was 
LAST  grown  on  Plot 

, 

j 

: 

^ 

' 

. 

'  This  project  may  be  used  as  an  individual  home  project  or  as  a  cooperative  project  on  the  school  farm.   It  should  follow,  or 
be  taken  with  Hotbeds  or  Cold  Frames. 

'  These  are  very  important  and  difficult  problems.   Read  "  Vegetable  Gardening  and  Canning,"  by  Nolan  and  Greene. 

[1961 


PROJECT  2    (Continued) 

PLANTING  RECORD 

Note.   Do  not  include  in  this  any  vegetables  started  in  a  hotbed  or  cold  frame.     Make  an  entry  for  each  variety. 


Vegetable 

VARIETi- 

Date  Planted 

Depth  in 
Inches 

Distance  in 
Inches 

Distance 

Apaxt  of  Rows 

in  Inches 

Date  of 
First  Harvest 

Date  of  Last 
Harvest 

HOTBED   AND   COLD-FRAME  RECORD 


Vegetable 

Variety 

Date  Planted 
m  Hotbed 

Date  Planted  in  or  Transplanted 
to  Cold  Frames 

Date  Transplanted  in  Garden 

- 

SUMMARY  INVENTORY 

Note.   Insert  all  items,  receipts,  and  disbursements. 


Item 

Charge 

Credit 

197 


PROJECT  3 

FINDING  THE  HIGH  YIELDING  EAR  FOR  SEED 

Material.  Twenty  or  thirty  ears  of  seed  corn  of  the  variety  to  be  tested  for  each  student,  and  an 
equal  number  of  corn  rows  125  feet  long.  It  is  desirable  to  have  different  students  test  different  varieties. 
The  best  local  varieties  should  be  tested  and  also  the  varieties  recommended  by  the  State  Agricultural 
CoUege. 

Directions.  Select  twenty  or  thirty  seed  ears  of  the  variety  or  strain  best  adapted  to  the  neighbor- 
hood or  that  your  father  grows  as  his  main  crop  and  plant  one  row,  125  feet  long,  from  the  seed  of  each 
ear.  This  will  require  about  four  rows  of  kernels  from  the  ear.  Niunber  each  ear  to  correspond  to 
the  row  in  which  the  kernels  are  planted,  ear  No.  i  being  planted  in  row  No.  i,  etc.  The 
remainder  of  each  ear  should  be  tagged,  wrapped,  and  put  away  for  use  after  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ment have  been  determined.  Plant  the  same  number  of  kernels  in  each  row  and  give  all  rows  the  same 
treatment. 

At  harvest  ascertain  the  percentage  of  a  perfect  stand  in  each  row ;  the  niunber  and  percentage  of 
barren  stalks ;  the  date  on  which  the  plants  of  each  row  begin  to  mature,  observing  which  rows  are  early, 
which  are  late,  and  the  number  of  days  between  maturity  of  the  earliest  and  latest  rows.  When  the  corn 
is  mature,  husk  each  row  separately  and  weigh  the  ears  of  each.  Record  the  weight  of  com  in  each  row. 
Fill  in  the  blanks  on  the  following  page. 

Select  thirty  or  forty  of  the  best  ears  from  the  ten  highest-yielding  rows  for  seed  for  the  next  year's 
ear-row  test  and  save  all  the  other  good  ears  from  these  rows  as  seed  for  the  main  crop.  It  is  not  safe 
to  restrict  the  choice  of  seed  to  one  or  two  of  the  highest-yielding  rows,  because  the  corn  would  become 
too  closely  inbred. 

The  ears  of  corn  from  which  the  seed  came  that  produced  the  highest-yielding  rows  are  to  be  planted 
in  the  seed  plot,  and  the  corn  thus  produced  used  for  seed  the  next  year. 


[198] 


PROJECT   3    (Continued) 
THE  EAR-ROW  TEST 


Row 
Number 

General  Character 
OF  Plant 

Matiiritv 

Type 

Color 

Grain 

Germ 

Yield 
per  Acre 

Coarse  or  leafy 

Late,  medium, 
or  early 

Variable 
or  mixed 

Pure  or 
mixed 

Deep,  medium, 
or  shallow 

Large,  medium, 
small 

I 

2 

' 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

lO 

II 

13 

13 

14 

1 

IS 

i6 

17 

i8 

19 

20 

21 

22 

[199. 


PROJECT  4 

GROWING  POULTRY  FOR  PROFIT 

Material.  Not  less  than  twelve  dozen  selected  eggs ;  poultry  houses ;  pens ;  incubators ;  brooders ; 
and  the  necessary  chicken  feed. 

Directions.  Give  not  less  than  six  months  to  this  project.  Before  beginning  the  project  review 
all  that  you  have  learned  about  poultry.  Study  the  following  very  carefully:  (i)  building  poultry 
houses  and  pens ;  (2)  the  construction,  care,  and  use  of  incubators ;  (3)  the  feeding 'and  care  of  chickens. 

Having  completed  the  required  reading,  determine  the  number  of  eggs  with  which  you  will  begin. 
Prepare  your  poultry  house  and  pens  from  plans  approved  by  your  teacher.  Procure  an  incubator  of 
proper  size  and  design  approved  by  your  teacher.  Make  all  necessary  arrangements  for  the  proper  kind 
and  amount  of  food.  Purchase  your  eggs  and  begin  the  project.  Be  sure  to  purchase  only  fresh  fertile 
eggs. 

On  blank  forms  like  those  below  keep  a  full  and  complete  record. 

HATCH  RECORD 


Day 

Fertile 

Infertile 

Dead 

Broken 

Reuarks 

ISt     .      .      .      . 

7th    ...      . 

14th        .      .      . 

2ISt          .       .       . 

. 

Total     .     .     . 

INCUBATION  RECORD 


Total  eggs 

Per  cent  of  eggs  (total)  hatched 

Total  number  of  chicks 

Total  egg  cost  per  chick 

eggs  at cents  per  dozen 

gallons  kerosene  oil  at cents  per  gallon 

hours  labor  at cents  per  hour 

Interest  and  depreciation        . 

Total  cost  of  hatch 

Total  cost  per  chick 

[200; 


PROJECT  4    (ConHnued) 
BROODING  RECORD 


Chicks  started  with 

Chicks  lost 

Cockerels  sold cockerels pounds 

Pullets  reared 

Cocks  reared 

gallons  of  fuel  at cents  per  gallon 

hours  labor  at cents  per  hour 

Feed    ........ 

Total  cost  of  brooding          .... 

Cost  per  bird       ...... 

Incubation  ....... 

Total  cost  of  flock        ..... 

Total  cost  per  bird 

SUMMARY  AND   FINANCIAL  STATEMENT 


Month 

Feed  Consumed 

Cost  of  Feed 

Eggs  Sold 

Fowls  Sold 

Labor. 
Self 

Pounds 
Grain 

Pounds 
Mash 

AUElse 

Grain 

Mash 

.Ml  Else 

Total 

Number 
Dozen 

Value 

Number 

Value 

* 

Total 

FINAL   SUMMARY 

Note.   Include  a  full  and  complete  statement  of  all  receipts  and  expenditures,  showing  totals  and  net  profit. 


Inventory 

Items 

Charges 

Credit 

201 


PROJECT    5 
KEEPING   TWO  DOZEN  HENS   FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 

Material.   Two  dozen  selected  hens ;  poultry  house ;  pens ;  feed. 

Directions.  Make  all  needed  preparation  in  advance  so  that  when  the  time  comes  to  start  the 
project  you  will  know  just  what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it.  Do  all  the  required  reading ;  talk  with  your 
teacher  concerning  all  doubtful  points ;   make  complete  plans  and  arrangements. 

Having  prepared  the  poultry  houses  and  pens  and  made  all  necessary  arrangements  for  feed  and 
proper  care,  select  and  purchase  your  hens.  Feed  them  an  egg-producing  ration,  care  for  them  daily, 
collect  and  market  the  eggs.  Keep  a  full  account  of  all  receipts  and  expenditures  for  a  period  of  three 
months.  Supplementary  to  the  tabulated  information  required  below,  write  up  the  project  in  composi- 
tion form.  In  writing  your  composition  include  such  items  a;s  the  following :  breed  of  hens,  period  of 
greatest  egg  production,  health  of  flock,  effect  of  climatic  changes,  how  the  poultry  house  was  kept  clean, 
and  general  conclusions  drawn  from  project.  Compare  your  conclusions  with  those  found  in  standard 
references ;  with  results  obtained  by  your  classmates. 

FINANCIAL  SUMMARY 


Month 

Feed  Consumed 

Cost  of  Feed 

Eggs  SotD 

Pounds  Grain 

Pounds  Mash 

All  Else 

Grain 

Mash 

All  Else 

Dozen 

Value 

Totals 

RATIONS  USED 


Month 

Pounds  Corn 

Pounds  Wheat 

Pounds  Mixed 
Grain 

Pounds  Meat 
Scraps 

Pounds  Mash 

Pounds  Shell 

Pounds  All 
Else 

Totals 

[202] 


PROJECT  5    (Continued) 
SUMMARY  INVENTORY 
Note.   Insert  all  items,  receipts,  and  disbursements. 


Date 

Item 

Charge 

Credit 

[203] 


II.   SOIL   PROJECTS 


PROJECT   6 

PREPARATION  OF  A  SEED  BED  FOR  WHEAT 

Statement.  The  wheat  plant  makes  a  part  of  its  growth  during  the  fall,  winter,  and  early  spring, 
when  the  chemical  and  bacterial  actions  in  the  soil  are  at  their  lowest  point  of  activity.  These 
actions  which  liberate  food  for  the  growing  plant  are  most  active  when  the  season  is  moist  and 
warm.  As  a  consequence  land  that  will  produce  fairly  well  of  crops  which  are  cultivated  and  which 
grow  only  through  the  spring  and  summer,  may  not  produce  wheat  well  unless  the  farmer  takes  steps 
to  assist  nature  in  unlocking  the  plant  food  in  the  soil.  He  accomplishes  this  by  plowing  the  land 
a  month  or  two  before  the  seed  is  sown  and  by  harrowing  the  land  frequently  enough  to  keep  down 
the  weeds.    By  this  means  also  moisture  is  accumulated  and  conserved,  because  land,  when  plowed, 

absorbs  the  moisture  which  falls  as  rain, 
and  it  is  conserved  because  the  weeds  are 
kept  down  so  that  they  do  not  rob  the 
soil  of  moisture  as  they  do  on  unplowed 
land.  Available  plant  food  is  conserved 
also,  as  the  weeds  are  not  allowed  to 
grow  to  use  up  the  food  as  rapidly  as  it 
becomes  available. 

Material.   Plot  of  ground  which  may 
be  seeded  to  wheat ;  seed  wheat. 

Directions,  i.  Divide  the  plot  selected 
into  three  sections.  Prepare  the  first  sec- 
tion by  plowing,  disking,  and  harrowing 
it  at  least  two  months  before  time  for 
seeding.  Prepare  the  second  section  by 
plowing  and  harrowing  it  just  before 
Fig.  154.  How  the  yield  may  be  increasea  by  timely  plowing  seeding  time.    Prepare  the  third  section 

by  disking  to  a  depth  of  three  inches  and  harrowing,  just  before  seeding  time.  At  seeding  time 
harrow  the  first  section,  leave  the  other  two  sections  as  they  are,  and  seed  them  all  to  wheat.  Plant 
the  wheat  about  an  inch  deep.    Observe  the  difi'erences  in  growth  from  time  to  time. 

Test  by  pulling  up  different  plants.  If  the  seed  bed  was  properly  prepared,  the  plants  will  break 
off  instead  of  being  pulled  out  by  the  roots.  If  they  leave  the  soil,  it  is  because  the  seed  bed  has 
not  been  compacted  sufiiciently.  Notice  the  methods  used  in  preparing  soil  for  wheat  on  different 
farms.  Fill  in  the  blank  on  the  opposite  page.  Observe  the  growth  and  yield  of  wheat  sown  on 
unplowed  corn  land  as  compared  with  the  three  plots  described  above.  Explain  why  farmers  do 
not  plow  corn  stubble  land  when  sowing  it  to  wheat. 

Grow  a  field  of  wheat  for  market.  Choose  seed  of  a  variety  that  is  known  to  be  well  adapted 
to  yoiu:  locality.  Prepare  the  land  according  to  the  best  information  you  have,  and  keep  a  strict 
account  of  the  cost  of  seed  and  all  operations  until  the  crop  is  marketed.  Record  the  results  and 
strike  a  balance  to  show  the  profit  or  loss  in  the  operation.  Compare  your  results  with  those  of 
the  best  farmers  of  the  neighborhood;  with  some  of  the  poorest  farmers.  Note  the  particulars  in 
which  your  methods  differ  from  theirs.    Explain  wherein  your  method  excels  theirs. 

Note.   This  project  may  be  used  as  an  individual  project  or  as  a  group  project. 

[204] 


PROJECT   6    (Continued) 


PREPARING  A  SEED   BED   FOR  WHEAT 


Name  or  Farm 

Date  Plowed 

Number  of 
Cultivations 

Date  of  Last 
Cultivation 

Natuke  of  Soil 

Yield  in 
Bushels 

205 


PROJECT  7 

DETERMINING  WHAT  THE   SOIL  NEEDS 

Material.   Plot  of  land  and  different  fertilizers. 

Directions.  Lay  out  twelve  plots  of  ground  exactly  2  rods  wide  and  8  rods  long,  marking  the 
boundaries  of  each  by  stakes  driven  well  into  the  ground.  Each  plot  will  contain  ru  of  an  acre. 
Plow  all  the  entire  plots  and  add  fertilizers  as  follows : 


Plot  Number 

Substance  to  Be  Used 

Plant  Food 

Amount  Needed  for  -^  A. 

1 

Nothing 

2 

Barnyard  manure        

1 0.0  per  cent  N 

135.0  pounds 

3 

Sodium  nitrate        

16.0  per  cent  N 

12.0  per  cent  N 

6.7  per  cent  N 

4.5  pounds 

5.6  pounds 
1 0.0  pounds 

(or)  dried  blood  (red) 

(or)  cottonseed  meal 

4 

Acid  phosphate 

7.0  per  cent  P 
lo.o  per  cent  P 

77.0  poimds 
S4.0  pounds 

(or)  steamed  bone  meal 

S 

Muriate  of  potash       

(or)  sulphate  of  potash 

42.0  per  cent  K 
43.0  per  cent  K 

13.0  pounds 
12.6  pounds 

6 

Nothing 

7 

One  substance  from  each  of  Nos.  3    and 
4  combined 

8 

One  substance  from  No.  3  and  one  from 
No.  s  combined 

9 

Olie    substance    from    No.    4    and    one 
from  No.  5  combined       

10 

One    substance    from   No.   3,    one    from 
No.  4,  and  one  from  No.  5  combined 

II 

One  substance    used   in  No.  4  and    the 
material  used  in  No.  2  combined  .     .     . 

12 

Calcium  carbonate 

(or)  slaked  lime       

40.0  per  cent  Ca. 
71.4  per  cent  Ca. 

33.5  pounds 

18.6  pounds 

Work  the  fertilizer  well  into  the  ground  and  be  careful  that  the  fertilizer  on  one  plot  is  not  dragged 
on  to  another  by  cultivation. 

At  the  proper  time  plant  the  entire  plot  to  the  same  crop  —  wheat,  potatoes  or  cotton.  Plant  in 
rows  running  lengthwise  of  the  plot.  As  the  growing  continues  throughout  the  summer  give  all  the 
plots  the  same  cultivation  in  case  potatoes  or  cotton  is  planted  and  observe  the  differences  due  to 
fertilizers  on  the  color,  vigor,  time  of  maturing,  and  yield  of  the  crop. 

Record  the  results,  using  blank  forms  like  those  on  the  following  page. 

[206] 


PROJECT  7    {Continued) 
SOIL  RECORD 


Bottom 

OR 

Upland 

Acres 

IN 

Plot 

Crops  Grown 

ON  Soil 

Last  Year 

Crops  Grown  on 

Soil  Year  before 

Last 

Number  of  Years 
Field  Has  Been 
IN  Cultivation 

When  Legume  Chop 

Was  Last  Grown 

ON  Field 

Plot  Number 

Substances 
Used 

Amount 

Plant  Food  Furnished 

N. 

P. 

K. 

I 

2 

3 

• 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

Q 

lO 

II 

12 

In  the  blank  form  place  the  amount  of  the  plant  food  elements  furnished  each  of  the  test  plots. 
Describe  the  soil  on  which  this  test  has  been  conducted. 

Problem,   i.  Compute  the  value  of  the  crop  on  each  separate  plot  at  the  local  market  price. 

2.  Compute  in  like  manner  the  value  of  the  fertilizer  used.   Which  plot  shows  the  best  invest- 
ment? 

3.  Rank  the  plots  in  order  of  the  value  of  their  gross  returns,  in  the  order  of  the  return  after 
deducting  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer. 

'2071 


III.    DEMONSTRATION  PROJECTS 

PROJECT  8 
DEMONSTRATING  THE  VALUE  OF  A  BALANCED  RATION  FOR  GROWING  HOGS 

Material.  One  or  two  pigs  weighing  40  to  50  pounds  at  weaning  time ;  dry  lot,  securely  fenced ; 
com,  pasture,  and  other  feed  as  required. 

Directions.  Select  one  or  two  thrifty  pigs  at  weaning  time,  weighing  40  to  45  pounds  each,  and 
confine  them  in  a  dry  lot.  Feed  the  pigs  on  corn  alone  and  keep  water  and  ashes  before  them 
constantly. 

In  a  similar  lot  confine  an  equal  number  of  thrifty  pigs  of  the  same  age  and  weight,  feed  them  on 
a  balanced  ration,  and  allow  them  to  have  access  to  water,  salt,  and  ashes  regularly. 

Put  a  third  lot  of  similar  pigs  in  a  clover,  alfalfa,  or  rape  pasture  and  feed  a  grain  ration  in  which  the 
digestible  protein  is  reduced  one  fifth  from  that  of  a  balanced  ration. 

Feed  in  all  cases  just  the  amount  of  grain  the  pigs  will  eat  without  waste.  It  is  best  to  keep  them 
hungry  enough  to  eat  the  feed  promptly  and  to  clean  the  trough.  Let  the  feeding  period  extend  from 
weaning  time,  about  July  i,  to  the  end  of  November.  Weigh  the  pigs  every  thirty  days.  Keep  an 
account  of  the  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  each  lot. 

At  the  end  of  the  trial  compute  the  gain  of  each  lot,  the  average  daily  gain  of  each  lot,  the  number  of 
pounds  of  grain  required  to  make  a  pound  of  gain,  the  value  of  the  hogs  of  each  lot,  and  the  value  of  the 
feed  consumed  by  each.  Strike  a  balance  and  determine  the  profit  or  loss  returned  by  each  lot.  Invite 
the  hog  growers  of  the  neighborhood  to  inspect  the  hogs  before  they  are  marketed  or  butchere'd  and 
report  to  them  the  results  of  the  test. 

Questions.  Which  lot  made  the  most  rapid  gain  ?  Which  lot  required  the  least  feed  for  a  pound  of 
gain  ?  Which  showed  the  smallest  money  cost  for  a  pound  of  gain  ?  Which  lot  brought  the  highest  price 
per  pound  ?  Which  lot  brought  the  lowest  price  per  pound  ?  After  deducting  all  cost,  which  produced 
the  greatest  net  profit  ?  Assuming  that  a  farmer  marketed  fifty  hogs  a  year,  what  would  be  his  return 
from  this  source  in  twenty  years  by  each  method  of  feeding  ?  Suggest  other  rations  which  will  make 
profitable  returns  on  hogs  in  your  neighborhood. 


RECORD   OF   RESULTS 


Lot 
Number 

Ration  Used 

Weight  of  Hogs 

AT  Beginning 

(in  Pounds) 

Weight  of  Hogs 

AT  Close 

(in  Pounds) 

Weight  Gained 
(in  Pounds) 

Cost  of  Grain 
Consumed 

Value  of  Grain 

Pkofit  or  Loss 

208 


PROJECT  9 

FINDING  THE  FAILURE  COW  IN  THE  HERD 

Material.  Milk  cows  selected  from  one  or  more  herds  in  the  community ;  feed ;  balances ;  milk 
tester ;  other  equipment  as  needed. 

Directions.  Feed  each  cow  the  same  kind  of  a  ration.  On  the  same  three  days  of  each  month  weigh 
each  kind  of  feed  consumed  by  each  animal  and  record  the  weight.  On  the  same  days  weigh  the  milk 
produced  by  each  animal,  night  and  morning.  Make  a  composite  sample  of  the  milk  from  each  cow 
and  test  it  for  butter  fat  by  the  Babcock  method,  using  a  separate  blank  form  for  each  cow.  Record 
all  the  data  in  order.  At  the  end  of  the  period  of  lactation  of  each  make  a  summary  of  each  cow's 
cost,  production,  and  profit. 

Questions.  Is  there  a  wide  difference  in  the  efficiency  of  the  cows  tested  as  regards  their  ability 
to  convert  feed  consumed  into  milk  and  butter  fat?  How  do  you  explain  any  difference  found? 
Which  of  the  cows  tested  shows  the  greatest  profit  ?  Which  least  ?  Which  one,  if  either,  would  you  select 
as  the  best  beef  type  of  animal  ?   Which  is  the  best  type  of  dairy  animal  ? 

SUMMARY   OF   RESULTS 

(Use  separate  blank  for  each  cow) 

Cow   No 


Month 

KiM)  OF  Feed 

Weight  of  Feed 

Value  of  Feed 

Pounds  Milk 

Per  Cent  Fat 

Value 

Total 

209 


IV.    IMPROVEMENT  PROJECTS 


Fig.  155.   Mixing  board  with  full-sized  post  form  in  place 


IP>  12  Copper  win 


PROJECT  10 

THE  USE  OF  CONCRETE  ON  THE   FARM 

Material.   Clean  coarse  sand,  gravel,  or  crushed  stone;  cement;  measuring  cup;  trowel;  spirit 
level;  screen;  measuring  box ;  materials  for  forms ;  reenf orcing  wire ;  tools  for  constructing  forms. 

Directions.  1.  Fence  post. 
Concrete  fence  posts  should 
ordinarily  be  5"  or  6" 
square.  The  length  is  de- 
termined by  the  height 
the  post  is  desired  above 
ground.  Construct  a  mold 
as  shown  in  Fig.  155,  using 
i"  dressed  lumber.  After  the  mold  is  assembled  give  the  inside  a  thin  coating  of  soft  soap  or  crude 
oil  to  prevent  concrete  from  sticking.  Make  a  mixture  of  1:2:4  concrete ;  mix 
thoroughly  while  dry  and  then  add  sufficient  water  to  make  the  concrete  mushy 
after  being  well  mixed. 

At  once  place  concrete  evenly  in  the  form  to  a  depth  of  |",  and  place  two  reen- 
forcing  wires  (No.  9)  the  length  of  the  post  and  f "  from  each  edge.   Pour  in  con- 
crete until  the  molds  are  filled  within  |"  of  the  top,  and  place 
two  more  reenforcing  wires.    Fill  the  mold,  tamp  lightly,  and 
level  across  the  top.    To  provide  for  fastening  fence  wire  to  posts 
take  two  pieces  of  No.  12  copper  wire,  6"  long,  and  twist  the 
halves  together,  leaving  the  ends  free  for  about  2".   While  the 
concrete  is  being  placed  in  the  form,  set  two  or  three  of  these 
wires  in  the  concrete  the  proper  distance  apart  for  stringing 
wires,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.   The  posts  should  not  be  disturbed  for  at  least 
ten  days,  to  give  the  cement  time  to  set. 
2.  Concrete  walks  and  steps.   Excavate  to  a  depth  of  about  6"  and  to  a  width  of  3"  more  than 
desired  for  the  walk.   Fill  the  space  excavated  with 
broken  stones,  coarse  gravel,  or  cinders,  to  within  4" 
of  where  the  top  of  the  walk  is  to  be.  Tamp  the  mate- 
rial thoroughly,  using  water  to  help  pack  it. 

Place  the  form  for  the  walk  (2"  X  4"  pieces 
smooth  on  the  inside)  on  the  foimdation.  Make  one 
side  from  \"  to  |"  lower  than  the  other,  so  the  water 
will  not  stand  in  pools  on  the  walk  after  a  rain.  Pre- 
pare a  mixture  of  i :  3  :  5  concrete  and  fill  the  forms 
to  within  1"  of  the  top.  Tamp  this  mixture  until 
water  stands  on  the  surface  and  at  once  place  the  fin- 
ishing coat,  consisting  of  one  part  of  cement  to  one 
and  one  half  parts  of  sand  mixed  to  a  mushy  mortar. 
Smooth  the  finishing  coat,  but  do  not  trowel  too  long 
and  do  not  allow  the  walk  to  be  exposed  to  intense  sunshine,  freezing  temperature,  rain,  or  dust 
while  it  is  hardening.  The  walk  should  be  divided  into  sections  to  prevent  bulging  when  it  expands  in 

[210] 


Fig.  156.  End  of  a 
post  showing  how 
to  place  reenforcing 
wires  and  copper 
wire 


Fig.  157.   A  wooden 
tamper 


Fig.  158.   Concrete  steps 


PROJECT  10  (Continued) 


warm  weather  or  cracking  when  it  contracts  in  cold  weather,  and  it  may  be  divided  by  building 
a  section  at  a  time,  or  by  cutting  the  walk  into  sections  while  "  green,"  by  means  of  a  trowel. 

3.  To  make  steps  of  concrete  proceed  as  above  for  the  foundation.   Make 
frames  for  each  step  desired  as  shown  in  Fig.  158. 

4.  Hog  troughs.  A  hog  trough  may  be  made  by  making  a  narrow  box 
frame  for  the  outside  form  and  using  a  small  straight  section  of  a  log  for 
the  inside  form.  Grease  the  inside  of  the  forms  and  pour  full  of  concrete 
made  by  mixing  one  part  of  cement  to  three  parts  of  coarse  sand  moistened 
imtil  it  is  a  thick  mortar.  Tamp  the  concrete  gently  until  water  rises  on 
the  top,  level  with  a  straightedge,  and  smooth  with  a  float  or  trowel.  In 
about  ten  days  remove  the  forms  and  soak  the  trough  with  water.  While  it  is  wet,  paint  the  inside 
with  a  coat  of  pure  cement  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of  heavy  paint.  Keep  the  mixture 
thoroughly  moistened  for  some  time  after  applying,  for  unless  it  dries  very  slowly  it  will  crack  and 
peel  off. 


Fig. 


IS9- 


Cross  section  of  hog 
trough 


[211] 


PROJECT  11 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  OF  HOTBEDS  AND  COLD  FRAMES 

Materials.  Window  sashes  and  lumber ;  spade ;  soil  thermometer ;  manure  prepared  as  explained 
below,  and  angle  irons  and  bolts. 

Directions.  The  hotbed  should  be  6'  wide,  located  on  the  south  side  of  a  building  and  on  high 
ground.  In  the  fall,  before  the  ground  is  frozen,  dig  a  pit  i8"  deep  and  a  few  inches  larger  than  the 
outside  dimensions  of  the  frame.  If  the  bed  is  to  be  set  early,  that  is,  before  the  middle  of  March, 
it  is  better  to  dig  the  pit  2'  deep.  Construct  the  frame  as  shown  in  Fig.  160.  Window  sash  may  be 
used  to  cover  the  frame.  Double  glass  sash  is  best,  as  it  avoids  the  necessity  for  extra  coverings 
during  cold  nights. 

Gather  fresh  horse  manure,  mix  it  with  one  fourth  its  bulk  of  straw  or  leaves,  and  put  it  in  a  compact 
pile  to  heat.   After  it  has  heated  for  three  days  fork  the  heap  over.   On  the  fifth  day  repeat  this  opera- 


r 


10  ■ 


\i 


Fig.  160.    Concrete  hotbed 

lion,  and  on  the  eighth  day  place  the  manure  in  the  pit,  tamping  thoroughly  as  it  is  placed,  and  wet 
it  thoroughly.  Fill  the  pit  to  within  an  inch  of  the  surface.  Put  the  frame  in  place  and  bank  earth 
or  heating  manure  around  the  outside  to  retain  the  heat  and  shed  surface  water. 

Supply  a  layer  of  rich  garden  soil  about  6"  deep  in  which  the  plants  are  to  be  grown.  Moisten 
the  soil  and  place  the  sash  on  the  bed.  There  will  be  a  gradual  rise  in  temperature  at  first,  and  later 
the  temperature  will  slowly  drop.  When  the  temperature  of  the  soil  falls  below  90°  F.,  plant  the 
seeds.     From  this  time  keep  proper  temperature  by  ventilation  and  water  the  plants  as  needed. 

Plant  such  crops  as  later  may  be  transplanted  in  the  school  or  home  garden. 

Record  all  results  as :  variety  and  number  of  plants  produced ;  daily  temperature  of  the  hotbed ;  and 
length  of  time  required  for  the  germination  of  the  different  kinds  of  Seeds  and  the  rate  of  growth  of  the 
plants  of  each. 

After  serving  its  purpose  the  hotbed  may  be  used  as  a  cold  frame.  A  cold  frame  is  like  a  hotbed 
except  that  there  is  no  manure  pit  and  no  source  of  heat  except  the  sun.  The  soil  layer  should  be  the 
same,  and  the  covering  may  be  sash,  as  in  the  hotbed,  or  it  may  be  cloth  if  the  season  is  well  advanced. 
Record  the  crops  produced  and  the  results  obtained,  and  compare  the  value  of  a  cold  frame  with  that 
of  a  hotbed. 


212 


APPENDIX 

TABLE  I.   DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   AND    FERTILIZING    CONSTITUENTS   IN    COMMON 

AMERICAN  FOODSTUFFS 


Nahe  of  Feed 


Concentrates:  Grains,  Seeds,  Etc. 

Corn  (No.  2  Grade) 

Corn  cob 

Com-and-cob  meal 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Wheat 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  bran 

Rye 

Rye  middlings 

Barley 

Oats 

Buckwheat 

Rice 

Canada  field  pea 

Cowpea 

Soybean       

Kafir  grain 

Sorghum  grain 

Milo  grain 

Millet  seed 

Flaxseed 

Linseed  meal  (old  process)  .    .     . 

Linseed  meal  (new  process)      .     . 
Cottonseed       

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed  hulls 

Sunflower  seed 

Peanut  kernels 

Peanut  shells 

Dried  brewer's  grain 

Wet  brewer's  grain 

Malt  sprouts 

Dried  distiller's  grain 

Wet  beet  pulp 

Dried  beet  pulp    ........ 

Sugar  beet  molasses 

Cow's  milk 

Cream 

Cow's  milk  (Colostrum)       .     .     . 

Skimmilk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Fat  hogs 

Meat  scrap       

Dried  blood 

Tankage  —  60  per  cent  protein   .    . 
Tankage  —  40  per  cent  protein   .    . 


Total 
Dry 
Matter 
IN  100 
Pounds 


86.0 
86.0 
84.9 

90.5 
90.8 

89.5 
88.8 
88.1 

91-3 
88.2 
89.2 
89.6 
86.6 
87.6 
85.0 
8S-4 
88.3 
90.1 
87.2 
91.0 
87.9 
90.8 
90.2 
91.0 
89.7 
93 -o 
88.9 
91.4 
930 
89.9 
91-3 
23.0 

90.  S 

92.4 
10.2 
91.6 
79.2 
12.8 


25-4 
9.4 
9.9 
6.2 


Digestible  Nutrients 
IN  100  Pounds 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbohy 
drates 


89.3 
91-5 
93-0 
92.0 


7.8 
1.4 

4-4 
29.7 

21-3 

8.8 

'130 
11.9 

9o 
ii.o 

8.4 

8.8 

8.1 

6.4 

19.7 

16.8 

29.1 

5-2 

4-5 

4.9 

7-1 
20.6 
30.2 
315 
12.5 
37-6 

0.3 
14.8 
26.7 

2.6 
20.0 

4-9 
20.3 
22.8 

0.5 
4.1 

4-7 
3-4 

17.6 
2.9 
3-8 
0.6 

66.2 
70.9 
58.0 
38.0 


66.8 
44.8 
60.0 

42.5 
52.8 

67-S 
45-7 
42.0 

69.4 
S2-9 
653 
49.2 
48.2 
79.2 
49-3 
S4-9 
23-3 
44-3 
61. 1 
44.8 

48.  S 

17. 1 
32.0 

35-7 
30.0 
21.4 
33-2 
29.7 
12.6 
9.2 
32.2 

9-4 
46.0 

39-7 

7-7 

64.9 

54-1 
4.8 

2.7 
5-3 
3-9 
S-O 


4.0 


Fat 


4-3 
0.4 
2.9 
6.1 
2.9 
1-5 
4-S 

2-5 

1.2 
2.6 
1.6 
4-3 
2.4 
0.4 
0.4 
I.I 
14.6 
1.4 
2.8 
1-3 

2-5 
29.0 

6.9 

2-4 

17-3 
9.6 

1-7 

18.2 

46.7 

2.8 

6.0 

1-7 

1.4 

n.6 


3-7 

'3.6 

0.3 
i.o 
0.2 

13-4 

2-5 

9.0 
1 1.0 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


Nitrogen 


9.6 
32 

151 

1.9 

2.8 

8 

4-3 

4 

7.6 

5-3 
8.2 

6.7 

6.6 
:  12.3 
:2.5 
:3-4 
:  1.9 
:9.i 
:  14.1 

:9-7 

:7.6 

3-9 

:i.6 

1-3 
:5-4 
:  1. 1 

123 

4-7 

4-3 

S-9 

2-3 
;  2.7 
;  2.2 
:  2.9 
;  15-4 
:i5-8 
:ii.5 
:3-8 

:o.6 
:  2.1 
:i.6 
:9.o 

:o.4 
:o.8 
:o.4 
:o.8 


Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1000  Pounds  ok  Material 


16.05 

3-9° 
13.60 
54.80 
40.00 
20.80 
27.00 
24.60 
17.60 
22.90 
16.00 
17.60 
18.10 
10.50 
37-9° 
35-42 
53 -60 
16.90 
14.80 
17.10 
17.40 
32.80 
52.10 
60.00 
29.40 
69.00 

6.70 
26.10 
44.60 

40.00 

10.70 

42.10 

49.90 

1.40 

12.90 

14.50 

5'7o 

4.00 

28.20 

5-20 

6.40 

1. 00 

17.60 

114.00 

135-00 

96.00 


Phos- 
phorus 


3.00 
0.26 
2.50 
1.40 
1.60 
3-40 
11.30 
XI. 60 
3-70 
S-30 
3 -40 
3.00 
3.01 
0.80 
3.61 
4-56 
4-47 
2-39 
3-54 
2.40 
2.80 
5-70 
7.08 
7.48 
4-50 
13-28 
1-85 
5-25 
5-33 

6.92 
1.81 
7.48 
2-58 
0.13 

0.95 
0.22 
0.83 
0.64 
2.84 
0.92 
0.73 
0.47 
3-14 

34-87 
S-80 

16.27 


Potas- 
sium 


3-22 

3-39 
2.66 
0.28 
0.23 

4-30 
7.64 
7.64 
4.80 
S-42 
390 
4.00 
2.49 
0.70 

5-71 
14.00 

7.12 

2-54 
2.66 
2.66 
1.86 
8.00 

10.38 
7-57 
6.16 

13.12 
5-88 
3.16 
7-17 

1-13 
0.28 

11.24 
0.96 
6-44 
1-75 

20.51 

1-41 
0.65 
0.62 
1.66 
0.90 

I-I3 
0.50 

4-35 
5-45 


Calcium 


[213] 


APPENDIX 

TABLE  I.  DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS  AND   FERTILIZING   CONSTITUENTS   IN   COMMON 

AMERICAN  FOODSTUFFS    {Continued) 


Name  of  Feed 


Dried  Roughage  and  Hay: 
Corn  fodder,  ears  remaining 
Corn  stover,  ears  removed 

Com  husks       

Com  leaves 

Timothy 

Barley 

Oats 

Barnyard  millet    .... 

Cat-tail  millet 

Hungarian  grass  .... 

Prairie  grass 

Red  clover 

Mammoth  red  clover     .     . 

Alsike  clover 

Crimson  clover      .... 

Japan  clover 

Sweet  clover 

Soybeans      

Cowpeas 

Alfalfa 

Peanut  vine 

Velvet  bean 

Sanfoin 

Oat  and  pea 

Straw: 

Wheat  straw 

Rye  straw 

Oat  straw 

Barley  straw 

Field  bean  straw  (pods) 
Soybean  straw 

Green  Roughage: 

Corn  fodder 

Kafir       

Yellow  milo 

Sorghimi 

Sugar  cane 

Roots  and  Tubers: 

Potato 

Common  beet 

Mangel 

Sugar  beet 

Flat  turnip 

Carrot 

Rutabaga 

Artichoke 

Sweet  potato 

Chufa 


Total 

Dry 

Matter 

IN  lOO 

Pounds 


57-8 
59-5 
49.1 
70.0 
86.8 
85.0 
86.0 
86.0 
89.0 
86.0 
90.8 

84.7 
78.8 

90.3 
90.4 
89.0 
90.8 
88.2 

89-5 
91.9 
92.4 
90.0 
85.0 
89-5 


90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
85.8 

950 
89.9 


20.7 

I7-S 
16.8 
20.6 
15-8 


20.9 

"•5 
9.1 

13-5 
9.9 
11.4 
11.4 
20.  s 
28.9 
20.5 


Digestible  Nutrients 
IN  100  Pounds 


Crude 
Protein 


2-5 
1-4 
0.8 
2.8 
2.8 
S-7 
4-7 
5-2 
7.2 

S-° 
3-0 
7-1 
6.2 

8.4 

lO-S 

9.1 

lO.O 

10.6 

9.2 

10.  S 
6.7 
9.6 

10.4 
7.6 

0.8 
0.7 

1-3 
0.9 

3-6 
2-3 

I.O 

0.9 

I.I 

0.6 


1  .1 

1.2 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
0.8 
1.0 

1-3 
0.8 
0.6 


Carbohy- 
drates 


34-6 

31.2 

33-8 

37.8 

42.4 

43-6 

36.7 

38.6. 

41.6 

46.9 

42.9 

37-8 

34-7 

39-7 

34-9 

37-7 

37-0 

40.9 

39-3 
40-5 
42.2 

52.S 
36.S 
41-5 


3S-2 
39-6 
395 
40.1 

39-7 
40.1 

11.9 
9.0 

9-3 
11.6 

9-5 

iS-7 
7-9 
5-S 
9.8 

6.4 
7-7 
8.1 
14.7 
22.9 
9.1 


Fat 


1.2 
0.7 
0.2 
0.8 

1-3 
1.0 

1-7 
0.8 
1.0 
I.I 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1 
I.I 
1.2 
1-4 
1-5 
1.2 

1-3 
0.9 

3-0 
1.4 
2.0 
i-S 


0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 


0.4 
o-S 
0.3 
0.3 
0-3 

0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.1 

0-3 
0.2 
0.2 
0-3 
5-6 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


1 :  14.9 

1 :  23.4 
1 :  42.8 
1 :  14.1 
1 :  16.2 
1:8.0 
1:8.6 


7.8 

6.1 

9.9 

15-5 

5-9 

6.3 

S-o 

3-6 

4-5 
1 : 4.0 
1:4.1 
1 :  4.6 
1 :  4.0 
1:7-3 
1:5.8 
1:3-9 
i:S-9 


1:45.1 

1 :  57-9 
1:31.8 
1 :  46.0 
I :  II 
1 :  18.4 


i:  I2.» 
1 :  11.2 
1:9.1 
1 :  20.5 
1 :  20.4 

1:14.5 
1:6.8 

1:5-9 
1:7.7 

1:7-3 
i:  10.5 
1:8.5 
I :  II. 6 

1 :  29-S 
1:35-7 


Fertilizing  Constituents 
IN  1000  Pounds  of  Material 


Nitrogen 


7.2 

8.00 

4.10 

9.80 

9.40 

14.10 

14.20 

16.90 

18.50 

12.10 

9.90 

19.70 

19.90 

20.50 

24.30 

22.10 

27.70 

23-80 

21.50 

23.00 

17.10 

22.40 

23.70 

16.50 


5.00 
4.00 
5-80 
6.40 

6.80 


2.90 

2.70 
2.10 
1.90 

3 -40 
2.40 
1.90 
1.60 
2.10 
1.80 
1.90 
4.20 
2.40 


Phos- 
phorus 


2.32 
1. 00 


1.42 

2.88 
1-85 

i.85 

2.50 

2.15 
1.72 

2.45 
2.12 

2.53 
2.21 

1.38 

2.15 
2.62 


-95 
1. 10 
1.29 
0.80 

1.08 


4-7 

0.47 

0-3 

0.39 

0.70 
0.34 
0-39 
0.40 

0-39 
0-39 
0.52 
0.61 
0.34 


Potas- 
sium 


5-03 
6.16 


8.02 

14-35 
16.27 

8.70 

15.00 

'7-85 
7.40 

15-19 
15-86 

7.80 
7.70 
6-55 

8.30 
10.23 

3-56 

7.10 

10.00 

8.80 

5-88 


3.22 
1.92 
2-49 

4.80 
2.71 

3-15 
3.20 
1.92 
1-47 
2-77 
2.66 
2.09 


Calcium 


214] 


APPENDIX 

TABLE   I.   DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   AND    FERTILIZING   CONSTITUENTS   IN   COMMON 

AMERICAN   FOODSTUFFS    {Continued) 


Name  of  Feed 

Total 

Dry 

Matter 

IN    lOO 

Pounds 

Digestible  Nutrients 
IN  loo  Pounds 

Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 

Fertilizing  Constituents  in 
1000  Pounds  of  Material 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fat 

Nitrogen 

Phos- 
phorus 

Potas- 
sium 

Calcium 

Silage: 
Com 

31-53 
23-9 

1.4 
•     O.I 

2.7 

I-S 

l8.I 
I3-S 

■9.6 
8.6 

0.7 
0.2 

1-3 
0.9 

i:  14 
1:139 

1 :  4.6 
1:7.1 

4-30 
1.30 

6.60 
430 

0.48 
0.66 

0.51 
0.65 

3 -07 
1.58 

4.24 
2.60 

1.40 

Sorcrhuni 

Kafir 

25-8 

20.' 

CowDca  vine     ......... 

TABLE  II.    PLANT   FOOD   CONTAINED   IN  COMMON  FERTILIZERS 


Name  of  Fertilizer 


Fertilizing  CoNsirruENTS  in  iooo  Poukds  of 
Material 


Nitrogen 


Phosphorus 


Potassium 


Calcium 


Barnyard  manure  .  . 
Dried  blood  .... 
Sodiiun  nitrate  .  .  . 
Ammonium  sulphate 
Steamed  bone  meal  .  . 
Raw  bone  meal  .  .  . 
Raw  rock  phosphate 
Acid  phosphate     .    .    . 

Basic  slag 

Wood  ashes  (unleadied) 

Kainit 

Potassium  chloride  .  . 
Potassium  sulfate  .  . 
Raw  limestone  .  .  . 
Burned  lime  .... 
Water-slaked  lime      .     . 


5.00 
140.00 

155-00 

200.00 

10.00 

40.00 


I. so 
0.80 


125.00 
90.00 

125.00 

62.50 

80.00 

S-00 


4.00 
1.60 


50.00 
100.00 
480.00 
500.00 


0.60 
0.40 


400.40 
774.60 
S40.00 


[215; 


APPENDIX 
TABLE  III.    FEEDING   STANDARDS' 


Dry  Matter 

Per  iocxj 

Pounds 

Live  Weight 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Protein 
pounds  per 
1000  pounds 

Carbohydrates 
poimds  per 
looo  pounds 

Fat 
pounds  per 
1000  pounds 

Swine,  Growing  : 

Pigs,  first  period 

Early  fattening 

Late  fattening 

45-52 
36-45 
28-35 

6.3 
6.4 
3-2 

29.0 
30.0 
21.0 

1.8 
1.6 
1-4 

1:5.2 
1:5-2 

1:7-5 

Swine,  well  Grown 
Brood  sows 

12-16 
13-17 
25-35 

1-7 
2.6 

9.0 

8.8 
21.0 

•5 
.6 

1-4 

1:6.7 
I  :  6.0 
1:9-3 

Gilts       

Fattening 

Cattle,  Dairy: 

Maintenance 

lo  pounds  of  milk 

40  pounds  of  milk 

13-22 
21-28 
27-35 

.6 
I.I 
2.6 

6.6 

9.0 

15-0 

.1 
.2 

.8 

I :  II. 4 

1:8.6 

1:6.1 

Cattle,  Beef: 

Maintenance 

Early  fattening 

Late  fattening 

12-21 
26-32 
24-30 

.6 

3-0 

2-5 

6.6 
15.0 
16.0 

.1 

■7 
•7 

I  :  II. 4 

1:5-51 
i:  7.0 

Horses  : 

Light  work       . 

Heavy  work 

18-23 
24-28 

1-5 
2.4 

9-5 
13.6 

•4 

.8 

1 :  6.9 
I  :  6.4 

Sheep,  Lambs: 
Weaned       

25-27 
,27-31 

3-2 

3-0 

15.0 
16.S 

■7 
•5 

i:  5-2 
1:5-9 

Fattening 

Sheep,  Full  Grown: 

Maintenance 

Fattening 

18-22 
23-31 

I.O 

2.7 

9-5 

16.S 

.2 

.8 

1:9.9 
1:6.8 

1  Computed  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  the  different  constituents  required  daily  for  each  1000  pounds  of  live 
weight.  After  Wolff,  Lehmann,  Kellner,  Armsby,  Haecker,  and  Eward. 


[216; 


APPENDIX 


TABLE  IV.    SUGGESTED  LIST  OF  TYPICAL  HOME  PROJECTS 

[Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  outlined  in  the  manual.] 

I.  PRODUCTION   PROJECTS 


Field  Crops 

1.  *Growing  Com  for  Profit 

2.  Growing  One-half  Acre  of  Potatoes 

3.  Growing  One-half  Acre  of  Cotton 

4.  Finding  the  High  Yielding  Ear  for  Seed 

5.  Growing  an  Acre  of  Alfalfa 

Orchard  and  Garden  Crops 

6.  *Growing  a  Vegetable  Garden  for  Profit 

7.  A  Home  Fruit  Garden 

8.  Planting  and  Caring  for  Fruit  Trees 

9.  Managing  Bearing  Orchards 

10.  Renovating  a  Neglected  Orchard 

11.  Strawberry  Production 

12.  Commercial  Vegetable  Garden 


Animal  Husbandry 

13.  The  Care  of  a  Sow  and  a  Litter  of  Pigs 

14.  Feeding  Weanling  Pigs  for  Market 

15.  Raising  Baby  Beef 

16.  Raising  a  Calf 

17.  Raising  a  Group  of  Lambs 

18.  Raising  Dairy  Calves 

19.  Dairy  Cow  Management 

20.  Keeping  a  Yearly  Record  of  Dairy  Cows 

21.  *Keeping  Two  Dozen  Hens  for  Egg  Production 

22.  *Growing  Poultry  for  Profit 

23.  *Managing  Incubators  and  Brooders 

24.  Managing  Half-dozen  Stands  of  Bees 


11.   SOIL   PROJECTS 


1.  Renovating  Worn  Soil  by  Means  of  Crop  Rota- 

tion, the  Use  of  Green  or  Barnyard  Manure 
or  Commercial  Fertilizers 

2.  The  Value  of  Legumes  as  a  Preceding  Crop 


Preventing  Surface  Erosion  by  Means  of  Ter- 
racing, Dams,  and  Tiles  or  Underdrainage 
*Preparation  of  a  Seed  Bed  for  Wheat 
*Determining  What  the  Soil  Needs 


III.   IMPROVEMENT  PROJECTS 


1.  Making  a  Self-feeder  for  Swine  6. 

2.  Making  a  Farrowing  House  for  Sows  7. 

3.  Making  a  Brooder  for  Chickens  8. 

4.  Making  Chicken  Houses 

5.  *Construction  and  Use  of  a  Hotbed  or  Cold  Frame 


*The  Use  of  Concrete  on  the  Farm 
Planting  the  Home  Grounds 
Planting  and  Care  of  Trees  and  Ornamentals  on 
the  School  Grounds 


IV.   COOPERATIVE   SCHOOL  PROJECTS 


I. 


Making  an  Exhibit  at  the  County  or  State 
Fair  of  the  Farm  and  Garden  Products  by 
the  Students  in  Their  Home-project  Work, 
together  with  Itemized  Statements  of  the 
Yields,  Cost  of  Production,  and  Profits  of 
Each  Product 


Maintaining  a  Similar  Exhibit  in  the  County 
Agent's  Office  or  in  Some  Other  Public 
Place,  but  on  a  Smaller  Scale  and  Changed 
Periodically  so  as  to  Bring  in  All  the  Stu- 
dents and  All  Important  Products  during 
the  Year 


V.   CONTROL   PROJECTS 


1.  Hog  Cholera 

2.  Texas  Fever 

3.  Chinch  Bugs 


4- 
5- 
6. 

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Grasshoppers 
Hessian  Fly 
Gypsy  Moth 


APPENDIX 


VI.   MANUFACTURING   PROJECTS 


1.  Curing  Meat,  Pork,  and  Beef                     '                 3.  Making  Cheese 

2.  Making  Butter                                                            4.  Making  Ice  Cream 

Vn.   MARKETING   PROJECTS 

1.  Distributing  Milk                                                           3.  Distributing  Poultry  Products 

2.  Distributing  Fruit  and  Vegetables                               4.  Distributing  All  Farm  Products 

Vin.  RECLAMATION  PROJECTS 

1.  Reclaiming  Wet  Land  by  Drainage                             4.  Reclaiming  Sour  Land  by  the  Use  of  Lime  or 

2.  Converting  Waste  Brush  Land  into  Pasture  Ground  Limestone 

3.  Renewing  Worn-out  Land  by  Means  of  Green       5.  Reclaiming  Arid  Land  by  Means  of  Irrigation 

Manuring  or  Dryland  Farming 

IX.   DEMONSTRATION  PROJECTS 

I.   *Demonstrating  the  Value  of  a  Balanced  Ration .      2.  Finding  the  Failure  Cow  in  the  Herd 
for  Growing  Pigs 


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TL    Ub7ZU 


578520 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


